History Of The Peloponnesian War
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The ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' () is a historical account of the
Peloponnesian War The Second Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), often called simply the Peloponnesian War (), was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek war fought between Classical Athens, Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Ancien ...
(431–404 BC), which was fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by
Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...
) and the
Delian League The Delian League was a confederacy of Polis, Greek city-states, numbering between 150 and 330, founded in 478 BC under the leadership (hegemony) of Classical Athens, Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Achaemenid Empire, Persian ...
(led by
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
). The account, apparently unfinished, does not cover the full war, ending mid-sentence in 411. It was written by
Thucydides Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
, an
Athenian Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
historian who also served as an Athenian general during the war. His account of the conflict is widely considered to be a classic and regarded as one of the earliest scholarly works of history. The ''History'' is divided into eight books. Analyses of the ''History'' generally occur in one of two camps. On the one hand, some scholars such as J. B. Bury view the work as an objective and scientific piece of history. The judgment of Bury reflects this traditional interpretation of the ''History'' as "severe in its detachment, written from a purely intellectual point of view, unencumbered with platitudes and moral judgments, cold and critical." On the other hand, in keeping with more recent interpretations that are associated with reader-response criticism, the ''History'' can be read as a piece of literature rather than an objective record of the historical events. This view is embodied in the words of W. R. Connor, who describes Thucydides as "an artist who responds to, selects and skillfully arranges his material, and develops its symbolic and emotional potential."


Historical method

Thucydides is considered to be one of the key figures in the development of Western history, thus making his methodology the subject of much analysis in the area of
historiography Historiography is the study of the methods used by historians in developing history as an academic discipline. By extension, the term ":wikt:historiography, historiography" is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiog ...
.


Chronology

Thucydides is one of the first western historians to employ a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, with each year consisting of the summer campaign season and a less active winter season. This method contrasts sharply with
Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...
.


Speeches

Thucydides also makes extensive use of speeches in order to elaborate on the event in question. While the inclusion of long first-person speeches is somewhat alien to modern
historical method Historical method is the collection of techniques and guidelines that historians use to research and write histories of the past. Secondary sources, primary sources and material evidence such as that derived from archaeology may all be draw ...
, in the context of
ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
oral culture, speeches are expected. These include addresses given to troops by their generals before battles and numerous political speeches, both by Athenian and Spartan leaders, as well as debates between various parties. Of the speeches, the most famous is the funeral oration of Pericles, which is found in Book Two. Being an Athenian general in the war, Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself. For the other speeches, he relied on eyewitness accounts. These speeches are suspect in the eyes of classicists, however, inasmuch as it is not clear to what degree Thucydides altered these speeches in order to elucidate better the crux of the argument presented. Some of the speeches are probably fabricated according to his expectations of, as he puts it, "what was called for in each situation" (1.22.1).


Neutrality

Despite being an Athenian and a participant in the conflict, Thucydides is often regarded as having written a generally
unbiased Bias is a disproportionate weight ''in favor of'' or ''against'' an idea or thing, usually in a way that is inaccurate, closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individ ...
account of the conflict with respect to the sides involved in it. In the introduction to the piece he states, "my work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was done to last for ever" (1.22.4). There are scholars, however, who doubt this. Ernst Badian, for example, has argued that Thucydides has a strong pro-Athenian bias. In keeping with this sort of doubt, other scholars claim that Thucydides had an ulterior motive in his Histories, specifically to create an epic comparable to those of the past such as the works of
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
, and that this led him to create a nonobjective dualism favoring the Athenians. The work does display a clear bias against certain people involved in the conflict, such as Cleon.


Role of religion

The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work. This is very different from Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods, as well as a nearly ubiquitous divine presence in the centuries-earlier poems of
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
. Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings. Despite the absence of actions of the gods, religion and piety play critical roles in the actions of the Spartans, and to a lesser degree, the Athenians. Thus natural occurrences such as earthquakes and eclipses were viewed as religiously significant (1.23.3; 7.50.4)


Rationalization of myth

Despite the absence of the gods from Thucydides' work, he still draws heavily from the Greek mythos, especially from
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
, whose works are prominent in Greek mythology. Thucydides references Homer frequently as a source of information, but always adds a distancing clause, such as "Homer shows this, if that is sufficient evidence," and "assuming we should trust Homer's poetry in this case too." However, despite Thucydides' skepticism in secondhand information such as Homer's, he does use the poet's epics to infer facts about the
Trojan War The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology that took place around the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. The war was waged by the Achaeans (Homer), Achaeans (Ancient Greece, Greeks) against the city of Troy after Paris (mytho ...
. For instance, while Thucydides considered the number of over 1,000 Greek ships sent to
Troy Troy (/; ; ) or Ilion (; ) was an ancient city located in present-day Hisarlik, Turkey. It is best known as the setting for the Greek mythology, Greek myth of the Trojan War. The archaeological site is open to the public as a tourist destina ...
to be a poetic exaggeration, he uses Homer's Catalogue of Ships to determine the approximate number of Greek soldiers who were present. Later, Thucydides claims that since Homer never makes reference to a united Greek state, the pre- Hellenic nations must have been so disjointed that they could not organize properly to launch an effective campaign. In fact, Thucydides claims that Troy could have been conquered in half the time had the Greek leaders allocated resources properly and not sent a large portion of the army on raids for supplies. Thucydides makes sure to inform his reader that he, unlike Homer, is not a poet prone to exaggeration, but instead a historian, whose stories may not give "momentary pleasure," but "whose intended meaning will be challenged by the truth of the facts." By distancing himself from the storytelling practices of Homer, Thucydides makes it clear that while he does consider mythology and epics to be evidence, these works cannot be given much credibility, and that it takes an impartial and empirically minded historian, such as himself, to accurately portray the events of the past.


Subject matter of the ''History''

The first book of the History, after a brief review of early Greek history and some programmatic historiographical commentary, seeks to explain why the Peloponnesian War broke out when it did and what its causes were. Except for a few short excursuses (notably 6.54–58 on the Tyrant Slayers), the remainder of the History (books 2 through 8) rigidly maintains its focus on the
Peloponnesian War The Second Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), often called simply the Peloponnesian War (), was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek war fought between Classical Athens, Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Ancien ...
to the exclusion of other topics. While the ''History'' concentrates on the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
aspects of the Peloponnesian War, it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes closely related to the war. It specifically discusses in several passages the socially and culturally degenerative effects of war on humanity itself. The ''History'' is especially concerned with the lawlessness and atrocities committed by Greek citizens to each other in the name of one side or another in the war. Some events depicted in the ''History'', such as the Melian dialogue, describe early instances of realpolitik or
power politics Power politics is a term which denotes an approach to political matters which aims to enhance the power of government actors. The term has much usage in the realm of international relations, and it is often used pejoratively. The German term fo ...
. Noteworthy, there is a possibility that translation mistakes influenced the deductions of realists with regards to the work of
Thucydides Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
. The ''History'' is preoccupied with the interplay of
justice In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the ''Institutes (Justinian), Inst ...
and power in political and military decision-making. Thucydides' presentation is decidedly ambivalent on this theme. While the ''History'' seems to suggest that considerations of justice are artificial and necessarily capitulate to power, it sometimes also shows a significant degree of empathy with those who suffer from the exigencies of the war. For the most part, the ''History'' does not discuss topics such as the art and
architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and construction, constructi ...
of Greece.


Military technology

The ''History'' emphasizes the development of military technologies. In several passages (1.14.3, 2.75–76, 7.36.2–3), Thucydides describes in detail various innovations in the conduct of siegeworks or naval warfare. The ''History'' places great importance upon naval supremacy, arguing that a modern empire is impossible without a strong navy. He states that this is the result of the development of piracy and coastal settlements in earlier Greece. Important in this regard was the development, at the beginning of the classical period (c. 500 BC), of the
trireme A trireme ( ; ; cf. ) was an ancient navies and vessels, ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean Sea, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greece, ancient Greeks and ancient R ...
, the supreme naval ship for the next several hundred years. In his emphasis on sea power, Thucydides is echoed by the modern naval theorist Alfred Thayer Mahan, whose influential work '' The Influence of Sea Power upon History'' helped set in motion the naval arms race prior to World War I.


Empire

The ''History'' explains that the primary cause of the Peloponnesian War was the "growth in power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Sparta" (1.23.6). Thucydides traces the development of Athenian power through the growth of the Athenian empire in the years 479 BC to 432 BC in book one of the ''History'' (1.89–118). The legitimacy of the empire is explored in several passages, notably in the speech at 1.73–78, where an anonymous Athenian legation defends the empire on the grounds that it was freely given to the Athenians and not taken by force. The subsequent expansion of the empire is defended by these Athenians, "...the nature of the case first compelled us to advance our empire to its present height; fear being our principal motive, though honor and interest came afterward." (1.75.3) The Athenians also argue that, "We have done nothing extraordinary, nothing contrary to human nature in accepting an empire when it was offered to us and then in refusing to give it up." (1.76) They claim that anyone in their position would act in the same fashion. The
Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...
ns represent a more traditional, circumspect, and less expansive power. Indeed, the Athenians are nearly destroyed by their greatest act of imperial overreach, the Sicilian expedition, described in books six and seven of the ''History''.


Earth science

Thucydides correlates, in his description of the 426 BC Malian Gulf tsunami, for the first time in the recorded history of
natural science Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...
, quakes and waves in terms of cause and effect.


Some difficulties of interpretation

Thucydides' ''History'' is extraordinarily dense and complex. His particular ancient Greek prose is also very challenging, grammatically, syntactically, and semantically. This has resulted in much scholarly disagreement on a cluster of issues of interpretation.


Strata of composition

It is commonly thought that Thucydides died while still working on the ''History'', since it ends in mid-sentence and only goes up to 411 BC, leaving six years of war uncovered. Furthermore, there is a great deal of uncertainty whether he intended to revise the sections he had already written. Since there appear to be some contradictions between certain passages in the ''History'', it has been proposed that the conflicting passages were written at different times and that Thucydides' opinion on the conflicting matter had changed. Those who argue that the ''History'' can be divided into various levels of composition are usually called "analysts" and those who argue that the passages must be made to reconcile with one another are called "unitarians". This conflict is called the "strata of composition" debate. The lack of progress in this debate over the course of the twentieth century has caused many Thucydidean scholars to declare the debate insoluble and to side-step the issue in their work.


Sources

The ''History'' is notoriously reticent about its sources. Thucydides almost never names his informants and alludes to competing versions of events only a handful of times. This is in marked contrast to
Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...
, who frequently mentions multiple versions of his stories and allows the reader to decide which is true. Instead, Thucydides strives to create the impression of a seamless and irrefutable narrative. Nevertheless, scholars have sought to detect the sources behind the various sections of the ''History''. For example, the narrative after Thucydides' exile (4.108''ff.'') seems to focus on Peloponnesian events more than the first four books, leading to the conclusion that he had greater access to Peloponnesian sources at that time. Frequently, Thucydides appears to assert knowledge of the thoughts of individuals at key moments in the narrative. Scholars have asserted that these moments are evidence that he interviewed these individuals after the fact. However, the evidence of the
Sicilian Expedition The Sicilian Expedition was an Classical Athens, Athenian military expedition to Sicily, which took place from 415–413 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Classical Athens, Athens on one side and Sparta, Syracuse, Sicily, Syracuse and Co ...
argues against this, since
Thucydides Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
discusses the thoughts of the generals who died there and whom he would have had no chance to interview. Instead it seems likely that, as with the speeches, Thucydides is looser than previously thought in inferring the thoughts, feelings, and motives of principal characters in his ''History'' from their actions, as well as his own sense of what would be appropriate or likely in such a situation.


Critical evaluations

The historian J. B. Bury writes that the work of Thucydides "marks the longest and most decisive step that has ever been taken by a single man towards making history what it is today.” Historian H. D. Kitto feels that Thucydides wrote about the Peloponnesian War not because it was the most significant war in antiquity but because it caused the most suffering. Indeed, several passages of Thucydides' book are written "with an intensity of feeling hardly exceeded by Sappho herself." In his '' Open Society and Its Enemies'', Karl R. Popper writes that Thucydides was the "greatest historian, perhaps, who ever lived." Thucydides' work, however, Popper goes on to say, represents "an interpretation, a point of view; and in this we need not agree with him." In the war between Athenian democracy and the "arrested oligarchic tribalism of Sparta," we must never forget Thucydides' "involuntary bias," and that "his heart was not with Athens, his native city:"
"Although he apparently did not belong to the extreme wing of the Athenian oligarchic clubs who conspired throughout the war with the enemy, he was certainly a member of the oligarchic party, and a friend neither of the Athenian people, the demos, who had exiled him, nor of its imperialist policy."


Influence

Thucydides' ''History'' has been enormously influential in both ancient and modern
historiography Historiography is the study of the methods used by historians in developing history as an academic discipline. By extension, the term ":wikt:historiography, historiography" is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiog ...
. It was embraced by many of the author's contemporaries and immediate successors with enthusiasm; indeed, many authors sought to complete the unfinished history. For example,
Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; ; 355/354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian. At the age of 30, he was elected as one of the leaders of the retreating Ancient Greek mercenaries, Greek mercenaries, the Ten Thousand, who had been ...
wrote his '' Hellenica'' as a continuation of Thucydides' work, beginning at the exact moment that Thucydides' ''History'' leaves off. In later antiquity, Thucydides' reputation suffered somewhat, with critics such as
Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus (, ; – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. His literary style was ''atticistic'' – imitating Classical Attic Greek in its prime. ...
rejecting the ''History'' as turgid and excessively austere.
Lucian Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridi ...
also parodies it (among others) in his satire ''The True Histories''.
Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was the 28th president of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He was the only History of the Democratic Party (United States), Democrat to serve as president during the Prog ...
read the ''History'' on his voyage across the Atlantic to the Versailles Peace Conference. In the 17th century, English philosopher
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan (Hobbes book), Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered t ...
(who himself translated the work) wrote about Thucydides as follows:
It hath been noted by divers, that Homer in poesy, Aristotle in philosophy, Demosthenes in eloquence, and others of the ancients in other knowledge, do still maintain their primacy: none of them exceeded, some not approached, by any in these later ages. And in the number of these is justly ranked also our Thucydides; a workman no less perfect in his work, than any of the former; and in whom (I believe with many others) the faculty of writing history is at the highest.


Manuscripts

The most important manuscripts include: Codex Parisinus suppl. Gr. 255, Codex Vaticanus 126, Codex Laurentianus LXIX.2, Codex Palatinus 252, Codex Monacensis 430, Codex Monacensis 228, and Codex Britannicus II, 727. Grenfell and Hunt discovered about 20 papyrus fragments copied some time between the 1st and 6th centuries AD in
Oxyrhynchus Oxyrhynchus ( ; , ; ; ), also known by its modern name Al-Bahnasa (), is a city in Middle Egypt located about 160 km south-southwest of Cairo in Minya Governorate. It is also an important archaeological site. Since the late 19th century, t ...
, including Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 16 and 17.


Outline of the work

* Book 1 ** The state of Greece from the earliest times to the commencement of the
Peloponnesian War The Second Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), often called simply the Peloponnesian War (), was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek war fought between Classical Athens, Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Ancien ...
, also known as the Archaeology. 1.1–1.19. ** Methodological excursus. 1.20–1.23 ** Causes of the war (433–432 BC) 1.24–1.66 *** The Affair of Epidamnus. 1.24–1.55 *** The Affair of Potidaea. 1.56–1.66 ** Congress of the Peloponnesian League at Lacedaemon. 1.67–1.88 *** The Speech of the Corinthians. 1.68–1.71 *** The Speech of the Athenian envoys. 1.73–1.78 *** The Speech of Archidamus. 1.80–1.85 *** The Speech of Sthenelaidas. 1.86 ** From the end of the Persian War to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Pentecontaetia. 1.89–1.117 *** The progress from supremacy to empire. ** Second congress at Lacedaemon and the Corinthian Speech. 1.119–1.125 ** Diplomatic maneuvering. 1.126–1.139 *** Excursus on Cylon. 1.126–1.127 *** Excursus on Pausanias and Themistocles. 1.128–1.138 **
Pericles Pericles (; ; –429 BC) was a Greek statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Ancient Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, and was acclaimed ...
' first speech. 1.140–1.145 * Book 2 (431–428 BC) ** War begins with Thebes' attempt to subvert Plataea. 2.1–2.6 ** Account of the mobilization of and list of the allies of the two combatants. 2.7–2.9 ** First invasion of
Attica Attica (, ''Attikḗ'' (Ancient Greek) or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, which consists of the city of Athens, the capital city, capital of Greece and the core cit ...
. 2.10–2.23 *** Archidamus leads the Peloponnesian army into Attica. 2.10–2.12 *** Athenian preparations and abandonment of the countryside. 2.13–2.14 *** Excursus on Athenian synoikism. 2.15–2.16 *** Difficult conditions in
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
for refugees from countryside. 2.17 *** Archidamus ravages Oenoe and Acharnai. 2.18–2.20 *** Athenian fury and anger at
Pericles Pericles (; ; –429 BC) was a Greek statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Ancient Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, and was acclaimed ...
. 2.21–2.22 ** Athenian naval counterattacks along coast of
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
and islands. 2.23–2.32 ** Pericles' Funeral Oration. 2.34–2.46 ** The plague of Athens. 2.47–2.54 ** Second invasion of
Attica Attica (, ''Attikḗ'' (Ancient Greek) or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, which consists of the city of Athens, the capital city, capital of Greece and the core cit ...
and Athenian naval counterattacks. 2.55–2.58 **
Pericles Pericles (; ; –429 BC) was a Greek statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Ancient Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, and was acclaimed ...
' third speech, defending his position and policy. 2.59–2.64 **
Thucydides Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
' estimate of
Pericles Pericles (; ; –429 BC) was a Greek statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Ancient Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, and was acclaimed ...
' qualities and the causes for
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
' eventual defeat. 2.65 ** Diplomacy and skirmishes in
Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...
, the islands, and the Northeast. 2.66–2.69 ** Fall of Potidaea. 2.70 ** Investment of Plataea. 2.71–2.78 ** Naval victories of Phormio in the Northeast. 2.80–2.92 ** Threat of raid on the
Piraeus Piraeus ( ; ; , Ancient: , Katharevousa: ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens city centre along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf in the Ath ...
. 2.93–2.94 **
Thracian The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared between north-eastern Greece, ...
campaign in Macedonia under Sitalces. 2.95–2.101 * Book 3 (428–425 BC) ** Annual invasion of
Attica Attica (, ''Attikḗ'' (Ancient Greek) or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, which consists of the city of Athens, the capital city, capital of Greece and the core cit ...
. 3.1 ** Revolt of Mytilene. 3.2–3.50 *** Speech of Mytilenian envoys to
Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...
at Olympia, asking for help. 3.9–3.14 *** Sparta accepts Lesbos as an ally and prepares to counter the Athenians. 3.15 ***
Mytilene Mytilene (; ) is the capital city, capital of the Greece, Greek island of Lesbos, and its port. It is also the capital and administrative center of the North Aegean Region, and hosts the headquarters of the University of the Aegean. It was fo ...
surrenders to Athens despite Spartan support. 3.28 *** Mytilenian Debate. 3.37–3.50 ** Fall of Plataea. 3.20–3.24, 3.52–68 *** Some Plataeans escape. 3.20–3.24. *** Plataea surrenders. 3.52. *** Trial and execution of the Plataeans. 3.53–3.68. **** Speech of Plataeans, 3.53–3.59 **** Speech of the Thebans. 3.61–3.67 ** Revolution at
Corcyra Corfu ( , ) or Kerkyra (, ) is a Greece, Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands; including its Greek islands, small satellite islands, it forms the margin of Greece's northwestern frontier. The island is part of the Corfu (regio ...
. 3.70–3.85 ***
Thucydides Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
' account of the evils of civil strife. 3.82–3.84 ** Athenian campaigns in
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
. 3.86, 3.90, 3.99, 3.103, 3.115–3.116 ** Tsunami and inquiry into its causes 3.89.2–5 ** Campaigns of
Demosthenes Demosthenes (; ; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and cu ...
in western Greece. 3.94–3.98, 3.100–3.102, 3.105–3.114 ** Spartans establish Heraclea in Trachis. 3.92–3.93 ** Athenians purify Delos. 3.104 * Book 4 (425–423 BC) ** Annual invasion of Attica. 4.2 ** Athenians en route to
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
occupy Pylos in the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
. 4.2–4.6 *** King
Agis Agis or AGIS may refer to: People * Agis I (died 900 BC), Spartan king * Agis II (died 401 BC), Spartan king * Agis III (died 331 BC), Spartan king * Agis IV (265–241 BC), Spartan king * Agis (Paeonian) (died 358 BC), King of the Paeonians * Ag ...
of
Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...
cuts short the invasion of
Attica Attica (, ''Attikḗ'' (Ancient Greek) or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, which consists of the city of Athens, the capital city, capital of Greece and the core cit ...
to return to the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
. 4.6 ** Concerted Spartan attack on the Athenian fort at Pylos. 4.8–4.15 *** The Athenian general
Demosthenes Demosthenes (; ; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and cu ...
coordinates the defense of
Pylos Pylos (, ; ), historically also known as Navarino, is a town and a former Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of ...
and rouses the troops with a speech. 4.9–4.10 *** The Spartan commander Brasidas distinguishes himself for bravery. 4.11–4.12 ** The Athenians defeat the Spartan assault on Pylos and cut off a garrison of
Spartans Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the valley of Evrotas river in Laconia, in southeastern P ...
on the adjacent island of Sphacteria. 4.13–4.14 ** The Spartans, concerned for the men on the island, conclude an immediate armistice and send an embassy to
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
to negotiate peace. 4.13–4.22 *** The speech of the Spartan ambassadors offers to peace and alliance to
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
in exchange for the return of the men on Sphacteria. 4.17–4.20 *** The Athenian Cleon, speaking in the Assembly, encourages the Athenians to demand the return of the territories surrendered by Athens at the conclusion of the First Peloponnesian War. 4.21–4.22 ** Events in Sicily. 4.24–4.25 ** Siege of the Spartans on Sphacteria continues without result. 4.26–4.27 ** Cleon takes command at Pylos. 4.27–4.29 ** Battle of Sphacteria results in the capture of all the
Spartans Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the valley of Evrotas river in Laconia, in southeastern P ...
trapped there. 4.29–4.41 ** Nicias leads an Athenian attack on
Corinth Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...
. 4.42–4.45 ** End of Corcyraean revolution. 4.46–4.48 ** Athenians capture Cythera, an island off the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
, and Thyrea, a town in the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
.
Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...
is hemmed in on all sides and desperate. 4.53–4.57 ** Sicilian cities make peace in conference at Gela, frustrating Athenian designs on the island. 4.58–65 *** Speech of Hermocrates at Gela. 4.59–4.64 ** Athenian attack on
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken ...
. 4.66–4.74 *** Capture of Nisaea. 4.69 *** Inconclusive engagements at
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken ...
. 4.73 ***
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken ...
eludes Athenian capture. 4.74 ** Invasion of
Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinisation of names, Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia (; modern Greek, modern: ; ancient Greek, ancient: ), is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the modern regions of Greece, region of Central Greece (adm ...
. 4.76, 4.89–4.101.2 *** Battle of Delium results in Athenian retreat into a temple, which the Boeotians attack and burn down. 4.90–4.100 ** Brasidas marches through
Thessaly Thessaly ( ; ; ancient Aeolic Greek#Thessalian, Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic regions of Greece, geographic and modern administrative regions of Greece, administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient Thessaly, a ...
to
Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...
and begins to cause Athenian subject cities to revolt. 4.78–4.88 *** Speech of Brasidas to the Acanthians. 4.85–4.87 ** Fall of Amphipolis to Brasidas. 4.102–4.108 ** Continued successes of Brasidas in
Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...
. 4.111–4.135 *** Brasidas secures the revolt of the garrison of Torone. 4.110–4.116 *** One–year armistice between Athenians and Spartans. 4.117–4.118 *** Scione revolts from Athens to Brasidas. 4.120–4.123 *** Truce breaks down. 4.122–4.123. *** Athenians retake Mende and besiege Scione. 4.129–4.131. * Book 5 (422–415 BC) ** Death of Cleon and Brasidas. 5.10 ** Peace of Nicias. 5.13–5.24 ** Feeling against Sparta in the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
** League of the Mantineans, Eleans, Argives, and
Athenians Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
. 5.27–5.48 ** Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of the League. 5.63–5.81 ** The Melian Dialogue. 5.84–5.113 ** Fate of
Melos Milos or Melos (; , ; ) is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. It is the southwestern-most island of the Cyclades group. The ''Venus de Milo'' (now in the Louvre), the '' Poseidon of Melos'' (now in the ...
. 5.116 * Book 6 (415–414 BC) ** The
Sicilian Expedition The Sicilian Expedition was an Classical Athens, Athenian military expedition to Sicily, which took place from 415–413 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Classical Athens, Athens on one side and Sparta, Syracuse, Sicily, Syracuse and Co ...
. 6.8–6.52 *** Early history of Sicily. 6.1–6.6 *** Speeches of Nicias and Alcibiades. 6.8–6.26 *** Affair of the Hermae. 6.27–6.29, 6.53 *** Departure of the expedition to
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
. 6.30–6.32 *** Speeches of Hermocrates and Athenagoras at Syracuse. 6.33–41 *** Arrival of Athenians in Sicily. 6.42–52 ** Digression on Harmodius and Aristogiton. 6.53–6.58 ** Recall and flight of
Alcibiades Alcibiades (; 450–404 BC) was an Athenian statesman and general. The last of the Alcmaeonidae, he played a major role in the second half of the Peloponnesian War as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician, but subsequently ...
. 6.60–6.61 ** Athenian victory at Syracuse. 6.62–6.71 *** Debate between Hermocrates and Euphemus at Camarina. 6.72–6.88 ** Alcibiades at Sparta. 6.88–6.93 ** Athenian victories at Syracuse. 6.94–103 *** Spartans dispatch
Gylippus Gylippus (; was a Spartan general (strategos) of the 5th century BC; he was the son of Cleandridas, who was the adviser of King Pleistoanax and had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian bribes in 446 BC and fled to Thurii, a pan-H ...
to Sicily and clash with Athens at Argos. 6.104–105 * Book 7 (414–413 BC) ** Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse. 7.1–7.3 ** Fortification of Decelea. 7.19–7.30 ** Successes of the Syracusans. ** Arrival of
Demosthenes Demosthenes (; ; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and cu ...
** Defeat of the Athenians at Epipolae. 7.42–7.59 ** Folly and obstinacy of Nicias ** Battles in the Great Harbour ** Retreat and annihilation of the Athenian army. 7.72–7.87 * Book 8 (413–411 BC) ** Disbelief and despair in Athens. 8.1 ** Allies revolt. 8.2–4 ** Persians offer support to Sparta. 8.5 ** Isthmian Festival. 8.9 ** Alcamenes. 8.10 ** Alcibiades encourages Endius to revolt. 8.12 ** Alcibiades encourages Chios to revolt. 8.14 ** Athens reverses law on reserve funds. 8.15 ** Sparta and Persian alliance. 8.18 ** Chians encourage revolt. 8.19 ** Samos commons overthrow upper classes. 8.21 ** Chians and Spartans v Athens and Argos; Ionians defeat Dorians. 8.25 ** Hermocrates prepares “finishing blow” to Athens, Alcibiades in Teichiussa. 8.26 ** Phrynichus = a “man of sense” retreats. 8.27 ** Tissaphernes distributes pay to Spartans. 8.29 ** The Spartan treaty with Persia. 8.37 ** Conflict between Pedaitus and Astyochus. 8.39 ** Slaves desert Chios. 8.40 ** Lichas tries to renegotiate treaty with Persia. The Spartans give not liberty but a “Median master” to the Greeks. 8.43 ** Rhodes revolts. 8.44 ** Astyochus is ordered to kill Alcibiades, who flees from Sparta to Tissaphernes. 8.45 ** Alcibiades advises Tissaphernes to let Athens and Sparta wear each other out. 8.46 ** Alcibiades plots his return to Athens. 8.47–8.48 ** Pissander to pave way for Alcibiades’ return. 8.49 ** Alcibiades betrays Phrynichus. 8.50 ** Phrynichus fortifies Samos. 8.51 ** Alcibiades encourages Tissaphernes to befriend Athens. 8.52 ** Pisander in Athens proposes deal: alliance with Persia, end of democracy, return of Alcibiades. 8.53–8.54 ** Athens defeats Chians, Pedaritus. 8.55 ** Alcibiades’ plans w/ Tissaphernes unravel. 8.56 ** Tissaphernes resolves to keep both sides equal, pays Sparta. 8.57 ** another treaty bet Persia and Sparta. 8.58–8.59 ** Pisander est. oligarchy in Athens, confusion in Samos. 8.63 ** Oligarchy in Athens, popular leaders are killed. “government of the 5,000.” 8.65 ** Oligarchy triumphant. 8.65 ** Popular party suspicious of each other. 8.66 ** Commissioners to frame a new constitution = tyranny of the four hundred. 8.67 ** Pisander, Phrynichus, Theramenes = leaders of the oligarchy. 8.68 ** The 400 with daggers dismiss the council (Boule) . 8.69 ** Oligarchs offer to make peace with Sparta. 8.70 ** Spartan forces move to Athens’ walls. Oligarchs again offer peace w/ Sparta. 8.71 ** Seamen at Samos reject oligarchy. 8.72 ** Turmoil at Samos, the Athenian crews est democracy, kill 30 oligarchs. 8.73 ** Exaggerated report at Samos of horrors at Athens. 8.74 ** Thrasybullus and Thrasyllus leaders of the democratic faction in Samos. 8.75 ** The army replaces oligarchy in Samos, Alcibiades promises alliance with Persia. 8.76 ** Debate in Samos. 8.77 ** Pelop soldiers anxious to fight, Astyochus unwilling to fight at sea. Tissaphernes fleet never arrives. 8.78 ** Athenians reinforced, Pelop unwilling to fight. 8.79 ** Revolt of Byzantium. 8.80 ** Alcibiades recalled, promises Persian aid. 8.81 ** Alcibiades elected general, “put all their affairs in his hands. 8.82 ** Tissaphernes fails to pay Spartan soldiers. 8.83 ** Pelop sailors threaten Astyochus, who is recalled and replaced by Mindarus. 8.84 ** Hermocrates is banished from Syracuse, he opposes Sparta’s alliance with Persia. 8.85 ** Alcibiades prevents Samian soldiers’ attack on Athens, calls for end to the 400. 8.86 ** Tissaphernes/Persia continues policy of letting Athens and Sparta wear each other out. 8.87 ** Alcibiades knew Tissaphernes would never send ships to support Sparta. 8.88 ** Oligarchs in Athens break ranks, Thermenes and Aristocrates fear Alcibiades power in Samos. 8.89 ** Phrynichus, Aristarchus, Pisander, and Antiphon most opposed to Democracy, again appeal to Sparta. Fortify the Piraeus. 8.90 ** The oligarchs’ plans. 8.91 ** The oligarchy collapses. 8.92 ** Oligarchs and soldiers meet on Acropolis and agree to reforms. 8.93 ** Pelop ships appear. 8.94 ** Pelop ships defeat Athenians, Euboea revolts. 8.95 ** Athens despairs. “Lacedaemonians proved the most convenient people in the world for the Athenians to be at war with.” 8.96 ** The 400 are deposed, the 5000 the “best government” in Thuc's lifetime. A “hoplite democracy,” no pay for public service (i.e. no thetes). 8.97 ** Pisander and Alexicles withdraw to Decelea, Aristarchus takes barbarian archers to Oenoe. The oligarchy is over. 8.98 ** Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus victory at sea renews Athens’ hope. 8.103–8.106 ** Alcibiades returns. 8.108 ** Abrupt ending of the history. 8.109


Selected translations

* Laurentius Valla, Treviso: J. Rubeus Vercellensis, 1483
Full text
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan (Hobbes book), Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered t ...
, 1628 * William Smith, 1753 * Johann David Heilmann, 1760
Full text
Richard Crawley, 1874
Full text
Benjamin Jowett, 1881
Full text
Benjamin Jowett, 1881 (archival copy) * Edgar C. Marchant, 1900 * Charles Forster Smith, 1919–23
Loeb
* Rex Warner, 1954 * John H. Finley, Jr., 1963 * Walter Blanco, 1998 * Steven Lattimore, 1998 * Bryn Maw
review of Lattimore's translation
which discusses the other major translations as well. * Martin Hammond *Jeremy Mynott, 2013


See also

* Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 17


References


Citations


Bibliography

* Connor, W. Robert, ''Thucydides''. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). . * Crane, Gregory
''Thucydides and the Ancient Simplicity: the Limits of Political Realism''
Berkeley: University of California Press (1998). * Hornblower, Simon, ''A Commentary on Thucydides''. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon (1991–1996). (vol. 1), (vol. 2). * Hornblower, Simon, ''Thucydides''. London: Duckworth (1987). . * Orwin, Clifford, ''The Humanity of Thucydides''. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1994). . * Pade, Marianne
"Thucydides"
'' Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum'', 8, pp. 104–81. Last accessed 1 March 2016 * Romilly, Jacqueline de, ''Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell (1963). . * Rood, Tim, ''Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1998). . * Strassler, Robert B, ed. ''The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War''. New York: Free Press (1996). . * Thucydides
''Thucydidis, olori fil, De bello peloponnesiacoa libri VIII''
Versione Latina, (London 1819)


External links

* * * * {{Authority control Books about military history 5th-century BC history books Unfinished books Peloponnesian War Ancient Greek military books Unfinished literature completed by others History books about wars Political philosophy in ancient Greece Ancient Greek history books Phoenicia in ancient sources