Terminology
In the early modern period, the term ''historiography'' meant "the writing of history", and ''historiographer'' meant "Antiquity
Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the "telling of history" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (seeEurope
Greece
The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged inRome
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the '' Origines'', composed by the Roman statesmanEast Asia
China
TheMiddle Ages to Renaissance
Christendom
Medieval ecclesiastic historiography, Christian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age, though its Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, historical reliability is disputed. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century. The Early centers of Christianity, growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I and Christianity, Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the ''Church History (Eusebius), Ecclesiastical History'' of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers.''Historiography''Islamic world
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his Sahaba, companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "Ilm ar-Rijal, science of biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic Golden Age, Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah ibn Zubayr, Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar Asqalani, Ibn Hajar (1372–1449). Historians of the Islamic Golden Age, medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the ''Muqaddimah'' (translated as ''Prolegomena'') and ''Kitab al-I'bar'' (''Book of Advice''). His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century.East Asia
Japan
The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the ''Rikkokushi'' (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the ''Nihon Shoki'', compiled by Prince Toneri in 720.Korea
The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the ''Samguk Sagi'', a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1122–1146). It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the ''Hwarang Segi'' written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost.China
In 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period (403 BCE) to the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Five Dynasties period (959 CE) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the "Official Histories" for the Six dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Five Dynasties, and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader. The great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the ''Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu'' (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read.South East Asia
Philippines
Historiography of the Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines. It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century. Before the arrival of Spanish colonial powers, the Philippines did not actually exist. Southeast Asia is classified as part of the Indosphere and the Sinosphere. The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty (960-1279), and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires. The pre-colonial Philippines widely used the Abugida system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history. Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal. The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines. The arrival of the Spanish colonizers, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained. The interplay of pre-colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study.Enlightenment
During theVoltaire
French ''Philosophes, philosophe''David Hume
At the same time, philosopherEdward Gibbon
The apex of Enlightenment history was reached withIn accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ... Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period.
19th century
The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England. Nineteenth century historiography, especially among American historians, featured conflicting viewpoints that represented the times. According to 20th-century historian Richard Hofstadter:Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle published his three-volume ''The French Revolution: A History'', in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's ''The French Revolution'' was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century.French historians: Michelet and Taine
In his main work ''Histoire de France'' (1855), French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) coined the term Renaissance (meaning "rebirth" in French language, French), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The 19-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view. Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet: Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French Naturalism (literature), naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism, and one of the first practitioners of Historicism, historicist criticism. He pioneered the idea of "the milieu" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passé.Cultural and constitutional history
One of the major progenitors of the history of cultural history, culture and art history, art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt. Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well." His most famous work was ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'', published in 1860; it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read. According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that "history is past politics and politics current history. By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs's ''Constitutional History of England'' (3 vols., 1874–1878) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good palaeography, palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.Von Ranke and professionalization in Germany
The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities, especially the University of Göttingen. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, "Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century." Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the ''History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514'', Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses". Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources, an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (). Sources had to be solid, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity. Ranke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called . Another important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of "World history ... represents the development of the spirit's consciousness of its own Freedom of will, freedom and of the consequent realization of this freedom." This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia, and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them:World history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself. The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free. ... The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Ancient Greece, Greeks, and they were accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some, and not all men as such, are free. ... The Germans#Middle Ages, Germanic nations, with the rise of Christianity, were the first to realize that All men are by nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence.Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of "leadership". This progressed to a Slavery, slave society where the idea of Social class, class emerged and the State (polity), State developed. Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy, with private property and parliamentary democracy. Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism, followed by communism, where property would be communally owned. Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of Romantic nationalism, national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.
Macaulay and Whig history
The term "Whig history", coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book ''The Whig Interpretation of History'' in 1931, means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any Teleology, teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and Transhistoricity, transhistorical narrative. Paul de Rapin, Paul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became "the classic Whig history" for the first half of the 18th century. It was later supplanted by the immensely popular ''The History of England (Hume), The History of England'' by20th century
20th-century historiography in major countries is characterized by a move to universities and academic research centers. Popular history continued to be written by self-educated amateurs, but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD's trained in research seminars at a university. The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives. Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics, so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use, and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses. Western Europe and the United States took leading roles in this development. The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices.France: ''Annales'' school
The French Annales school, ''Annales'' school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography. The ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale'' journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive ''Annales'' approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''la longue durée'') over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalités'', or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the ''Annales'' was to undo the work of the ''Sorbonnistes'', to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history. For early modern Mexican history, the work of Marc Bloch's student Francois Chevalier (historian), François Chevalier on the formation of landed estates (haciendas) from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography, setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic. An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one thatrelegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a ''histoire totale'', or ''histoire tout court'', a complete study of a historical problem. The second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: ''l'histoire quasi immobile'' (motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (''la longue durée''), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures. His 'longue durée' approach stressed slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The ''Annales'' historians, after living through two world wars and major political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress slow change and the longue durée. They paid special attention to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They considered the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. Noting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argued that "in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the ''Annales'' came to an end after 1968, and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply." Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history. However, the ''Annales'' ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research.
Marxist historiography
Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Friedrich Engels wrote ''The Peasant War in Germany'', which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an early interest in People's history, history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of Engels, ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'', was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society. R. H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. ''The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century'' (1912) and ''Religion and the Rise of Capitalism'' (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper. Historiography in the Soviet Union was greatly influenced by Marxist historiography, as historical materialism was extended into the Soviet version of dialectical materialism. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of United Kingdom, British Marxist historiography, Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill (historian), Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history. Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as representative of this school. His books include ''Puritanism and Revolution'' (1958), ''Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution'' (1965 and revised in 1996), ''The Century of Revolution'' (1961), ''AntiChrist in 17th-century England'' (1971), ''The World Turned Upside Down'' (1972) and many others. E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, ''The Making of the English Working Class'', published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below: Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians, such as David Montgomery (historian), David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes. Other important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm, C. L. R. James, Raphael Samuel, A. L. Morton and Brian Pearce.Biography
Biography has been a major form of historiography since the days whenBritish debates
Marxist historian E. H. Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book ''What Is History?'', which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject. He presented a middle-of-the-road position between the empirical or (Rankean) view of history and R. G. Collingwood's idealism, and rejected the empirical view of the historian's work being an accretion of "facts" that they have at their disposal as nonsense. He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always chooses the "facts" they decide to make use of. In Carr's famous example, he claimed that millions had crossed the Rubicon, but only Julius Caesar's crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians.Huges-Warrington, p. 26 For this reason, Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke's famous dictum ''wie es eigentlich gewesen'' (show what actually happened) was wrong because it presumed that the "facts" influenced what the historian wrote, rather than the historian choosing what "facts of the past" they intended to turn into "historical facts". At the same time, Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views. In this way, Carr argued that history was "an unending dialogue between the past and present". Carr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history.Huges-Warrington, p. 27. One of his first and most influential critics was the British philosopher, Michael Oakeshott, 'What is History?' (1961), in idem, ''What is History and Other Essays'' (Exeter, 2004), 325. Others have modified or rejected this use of the label "determinist". He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history. Carr emphatically contended that history was a Social sciences, social science, not an The arts, art,Huges-Warrington, p. 28 because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one's subject. One of Carr's most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who argued that Carr's dismissal of the "might-have-beens of history" reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation. Trevor-Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a "parlour-game" was rather an essential part of the historians' work,Trevor-Roper, p. 73 as only by considering all possible outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period. The controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book ''The Practice of History''. Elton criticized Carr for his "whimsical" distinction between the "historical facts" and the "facts of the past", arguing that it reflected "...an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it". Elton, instead, strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made by postmodernism. Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively analyzing what the evidence has to say. As a traditionalist, he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in history instead of abstract, impersonal forces. Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history. Elton had no use for those who seek history to make myths, to create laws to explain the past, or to produce theories such as Marxism.U.S. approaches
Classical and European history was part of the 19th-century grammar curriculum. American history became a topic later in the 19th century. In the historiography of the United States, there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century. In 2009–2012, there were an average of 16,000 new academic history books published in the U.S. every year.Progressive historians
From 1910 to the 1940s, "Progressive" historiography was dominant, especially in political studies. It stressed the central importance of class conflict in American history. Important leaders included Vernon L. Parrington, Carl L. Becker, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr., John Hicks, and C. Vann Woodward. The movement established a strong base at the History Department at the University of Wisconsin with Curtis Nettels, William Hesseltine, Merle Curti, Howard K. Beale, Merrill Jensen, Fred Harvey Harrington (who became the university president), William Appleman Williams, and a host of graduate students. Charles A. Beard was the most prominent representative with his "Beardian" approach that reached both scholars and the general public. In covering the Civil War, Charles and Mary Beard did not find it useful to examine nationalism, unionism, states' rights, slavery, abolition or the motivations of soldiers in battle. Instead, they proclaimed it was a: Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. wrote the ''Age of Jackson'' (1945), one of the last major books from this viewpoint. Schlesinger made Jackson a hero for his successful attacks on the Second Bank of the United States. His own views were clear enough: "Moved typically by personal and class, rarely by public, considerations, the business community has invariably brought national affairs to a state of crisis and exasperated the rest of society into dissatisfaction bordering on revolt."Consensus history
Consensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial. It was especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter, Louis Hartz, Daniel Boorstin, Allan Nevins, Clinton Rossiter, Edmund Morgan (historian), Edmund Morgan, and David M. Potter. In 1948 Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the U.S. political tradition:New Left history
Consensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted a younger generation of radical historians in the 1960s. These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class, race and gender. The history of dissent, and the experiences of racial minorities and disadvantaged classes was central to the narratives produced by New Left historians.Quantification and new approaches to history
Social history, sometimes called the "new social history", is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary people in the past. It had major growth as a field in the 1960s and 1970s, and still is well represented in history departments. However, after 1980 the "cultural turn" directed the next generation to new topics. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in U.S. universities identifying with social history rose from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40 to 30 percent. The growth was enabled by the social sciences, computers, statistics, new data sources such as individual census information, and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of Michigan. The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics, as the focus shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections. The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal ''Social Science History'' and an annual convention. The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences, especially political science, sociology and economics. The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification. However, by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off, as traditional historians counterattacked. Harvey J. Graff says: Meanwhile, quantitative history became well-established in other disciplines, especially economics (where they called it "cliometrics"), as well as in political science. In history, however, quantification remained central to demographic studies, but slipped behind in political and social history as traditional narrative approaches made a comeback.Latin America
Latin America is the former Spanish American empire in the Western Hemisphere plus Portuguese Brazil. Professional historians pioneered the creation of this field, starting in the late nineteenth century. The term “Latin America” did not come into general usage until the twentieth century and in some cases it was rejected. The historiography of the field has been more fragmented than unified, with historians of Spanish America and Brazil generally remaining in separate spheres. Another standard division within the historiography is the temporal factor, with works falling into either the early modern period (or “colonial era”) or the post-independence (or “national”) period, from the early nineteenth onward. Relatively few works span the two eras and few works except textbooks unite Spanish America and Brazil. There is a tendency to focus on histories of particular countries or regions (the Andes, the Southern Cone, the Caribbean) with relatively little comparative work. Historians of Latin America have contributed to various types of historical writing, but one major, innovative development in Spanish American history is the emergence of ethnohistory, the history of indigenous peoples, especially in Mexico based on alphabetic sources in Spanish or in New Philology, indigenous languages. For the early modern period, the emergence of Atlantic history, based on comparisons and linkages of Europe, the Americas, and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework. For all periods, global or world history have focused on the connections between areas, likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective. Latin America's importance to world history is notable but often overlooked. "Latin America’s central, and sometimes pioneering, role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period. Indeed, the region’s political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world. The first is the so-called liberal revolution, the shift from monarchies of the ancien régime, where inheritance legitimated political power, to constitutional republics... The second, and related, trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation-states." Historical research appears in a number of specialized journals. These include ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (est. 1918), published by the Conference on Latin American History; ''The Americas'', (est. 1944); ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' (1969); ''Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies'',(est.1976) ''Bulletin of Latin American Research'', (est. 1981); ''Colonial Latin American Review'' (1992); and ''Colonial Latin American Historical Review'' (est. 1992). ''Latin American Research Review'' (est. 1969), published by the Latin American Studies Association, does not focus primarily on history, but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics. General works on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s, when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U.S. universities and colleges. Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era, focusing on institutional, political, social and economic history. An important, eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is ''The Cambridge History of Latin America'', with separate volumes on the colonial era, nineteenth century, and the twentieth century. There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions. Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history and historiography. Reference works include the Handbook of Latin American Studies, which publishes articles by area experts, with annotated bibliographic entries, and the ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture''.World history
World history (field), World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points: syncretism, integration – (how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together), and difference – (how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience). Arnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume ''A Study of History'', took an approach that was widely discussed in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s his work was virtually ignored by scholars and the general public. He compared 26 independent civilizations and argued that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. He proposed a universal model to each of these civilizations, detailing the stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. The later volumes gave too much emphasis on spirituality to satisfy critics. Chicago historian William Hardy McNeill, William H. McNeill wrote ''The Rise of the West'' (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western culture, Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include ''world-system'' and ''ecumene.'' His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly.The cultural turn
The "cultural turn" of the 1980s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history. Inspired largely by anthropology, it turned away from leaders, ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society. The British historian Peter Burke (historian), Peter Burke finds that cultural studies has numerous spinoffs, or topical themes it has strongly influenced. The most important include gender studies and Postcolonialism, postcolonial studies, as well as memory studies, and film studies. Diplomatic historian Melvyn P. Leffler finds that the problem with the "cultural turn" is that the culture concept is imprecise, and may produce excessively broad interpretations, because it:Memory studies
Memory studies is a new field, focused on how nations and groups (and historians) construct and select their memories of the past in order to celebrate (or denounce) key features, thus making a statement of their current values and beliefs. Historians have played a central role in shaping the memories of the past as their work is diffused through popular history books and school textbooks. French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs, opened the field with ''La mémoire collective'' (Paris: 1950). Many historians examine how the memory of the past has been constructed, memorialized or distorted. Historians examine how legends are invented. For example, there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II, notably the Holocaust in Europe and Japanese war crimes in Asia. British historian Heather Jones argues that the World War I#Historiography, historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body. Representative of recent scholarship is a collection of studies on the "Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe". SAGE Publishing, SAGE has published the scholarly journal ''Memory Studies'' since 2008, and the book series "Memory Studies" was launched by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010 with 5–10 titles a year.Scholarly journals
The historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences, and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was ''Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations'', a publication of the Annales school, ''Annales'' school in France. Journals now typically have one or more editors and associate editors, an editorial board, and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are sent for confidential evaluation. The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that usually run 500 to 1000 words. The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer. Publication in a prestigious journal (which accept 10 percent or fewer of the articles submitted) is an asset in the academic hiring and promotion process. Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field. Page charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history. Journals are subsidized by universities or historical societies, scholarly associations, and subscription fees from libraries and scholars. Increasingly they are available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions. Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter-library loan.Some major historical journals
* 1840 ''Historisk Tidsskrift (Denmark), Historisk tidsskrift'' (Denmark) * 1859 ''Historische Zeitschrift'' (Germany) * 1866 ''Archivum historicum'', later ''Historiallinen arkisto'' (Finland, published in Finnish) * 1867 ''Századok'' (Hungary) * 1869 ''Časopis Matice moravské'' (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary) * 1871 ''Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)'' * 1876 ''Revue Historique'' (France) * 1880 ''Svenska Historiska Föreningen, Historisk tidskrift'' (Sweden) * 1886 ''English Historical Review'' (England) * 1887 ''Kwartalnik Historyczny'' (Poland;– then part of Austria-Hungary) * 1892 ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (US) * 1894 ''Ons Hémecht'' (Luxembourg) * 1895 ''American Historical Review'' (US) * 1895 ''Český časopis historický'' (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary) * 1914 ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (renamed in 1964 the ''Journal of American History'') (US)Stieg, ''The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals'' (1986) ch 4 * 1915 ''The Catholic Historical Review'' (US) * 1916 ''The Journal of Negro History'' (US) * 1916 ''Historisk Tidskrift för Finland'' (Finland, published in Swedish) * 1918 ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (US) * 1920 ''Canadian Historical Review'' (Canada) * 1922 ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (SEER), (England)Stieg, ''The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals'' (1986) pp. 127–47 * 1928 ''Scandia (journal), Scandia'' (Sweden) * 1929 ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale'' (France) * 1935 ''Journal of Southern History'' (USA) * 1941 ''The Journal of Economic History'' (US) * 1944 ''The Americas (journal), The Americas'' (US) * 1951 ''Historia Mexicana'' (Mexico) * 1952 ''Past & Present (journal), Past & present: a journal of historical studies'' (England) * 1953 ''Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte'' (Germany) * 1954 ''Ethnohistory (journal), Ethnohistory'' (US) * 1956 ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' (Nigeria) * 1957 ''Victorian Studies'' (US) * 1960 ''Journal of African History'' (England) * 1960 ''Technology and Culture, Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology'' (US) * 1960 ''History and Theory'' (US) * 1967 ''Indian Church History Review'' (India) (earlier published as the Bulletin of Church History Association of India) * 1967 ''The Journal of Social History'' (US) * 1969 ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' (US) * 1969 ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' (UK) * 1975 ''Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft'' (Germany) * 1975 ''Signs (journal), Signs'' (US) * 1976 ''Journal of Family History'' (US) * 1978 ''The Public Historian'' (US) * 1981 ''Bulletin of Latin American Research'' (UK) * 1982 ''Storia della Storiografia – History of Historiography – Histoire de l'Historiographie – Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung'' * 1982 ''Subaltern Studies'' (Oxford University Press) * 1986 ''Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts'', new title since 2003:Narrative
According to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative." Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.Topics studied
Some of the common topics in historiography are: * Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. (See also source criticism.) * Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, for example Marxist, Annales school, ''Annales'' school, "total history", orApproaches
How a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. Historians commonly recognise that individual historical facts - dealing with names, dates and places - are not particularly meaningful in themselves. Such facts only become useful/informative when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach. Some of the most influential historiographical approaches include: * Big history * Black history (disambiguation), Black history * Business history * Chronology * Comparative history * Cultural history * Diplomatic history * Economic history (history of capitalism), (cliometrics) * Environmental history, a relatively new field * Ethnohistory * Gender history including women's history, family history, feminist history * History of medicine * History of religion and church history; the history of theology is usually handled under theology * Indigenous peoples, Indigenous history * Industrial history and the history of technology * Intellectual history and the history of ideas * Labor history (discipline), Labor history * Legendary history - important in pre-modern contexts * Local history and microhistory * Marxist historiography and historical materialism * Military history, including naval and air history * Mythography, Mythistory - history incorporating elements of myth * National history - comforting myths of individual peoples * Oral history * Political history * Public history, especially museums and historic preservation * Quantitative history (prosopography using statistics to study biographies) * History of religions * Historiography of science * Social history and people's history; along with the French version the Annales school, ''Annales'' school and the German Bielefeld School * Subaltern Studies, regarding post-colonial India * Urban history ** American urban history * Whig history, history interpreted as the story of continuous progress * World history (field), World historyRelated fields
Important related fields include: * Antiquarianism * Genealogy * Intellectual history * Numismatics * Paleography * Philosophy of history * PseudohistorySee also
* List of historians by area of study * Historical significance * National memoryMethods
* Archival research * Auxiliary sciences of history * Historical method * List of historians, inclusive of most major historians ** List of historians by area of study * List of history journals * Philosophy of history * Popular history ** Primary source – documents, correspondence, diaries *** Secondary source – interpretations, written history **** Tertiary source – textbooks and encyclopedias * Periodization * Public history, including museums and historical preservation * Historical revisionism * Shared historical authority * v:Topic:Historiography, Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the v:School:History, School of HistoryTopics
* African historiography * Historiography of Argentina * Atlantic history * Historiography of Canada *Bibliography
Theory
* Appleby, Joyce, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, ''Telling the Truth About History''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. * Bentley, Michael. ''Modern Historiography: An Introduction'', 1999 * Marc Bloch, ''The Historian's Craft'' (1940) * Peter Burke (historian), Burke, Peter. ''History and Social Theory'', Polity Press, Oxford, 1992 * David Cannadine (editor), ''What is History Now'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 * E. H. Carr, ''What is History?'' 1961, * R.G. Collingwood, ''The Idea of History'', 1936, * Deluermoz, Quentin, and Singaravélou, Pierre: ''A Past of Possibilities: A History of What Could Have Been’’ ; Yale University Press, 2021 * Doran, Robert. ed. ''Philosophy of History After Hayden White.'' London: Bloomsbury, 2013. * Geoffrey Elton, ''The Practice of History'', 1969, * Richard J. Evans ''In Defence of History'', 1997, * David Hackett Fischer, Fischer, David Hackett. ''Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought'', Harper & Row, 1970 * Gardiner, Juliet (ed) ''What is History Today...?'' London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1988. * Harlaftis, Gelina, ed. ''The New Ways of History: Developments in Historiography'' (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 260 pp; trends in historiography since 1990 * Hewitson, Mark, ''History and Causality'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2014 * Jenkins, Keith ed. ''The Postmodern History Reader'' (2006) * Keith Jenkins, Jenkins, Keith. ''Rethinking History'', 1991, * Arthur Marwick, ''The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language'', Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, * Alun Munslow, Munslow, Alan. ''The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies'' (2000), an encyclopedia of concepts, methods and historians * Spalding, Roger & Christopher Parker, ''Historiography: An Introduction'', 2008, * Sreedharan, E, "A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000". New Delhi, Oreient Black Swan, 2004, * Sreedharan, E, "A Manual of Historical Research Methodology." Trivandrum, Centre for South Indian Studies, 2007, * John Tosh, Tosh, John. ''The Pursuit of History'', 2002, * Tucker, Aviezer, ed. ''A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography'' Malden: Blackwell, 2009 * White, Hayden. ''The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007'', Johns Hopkins, 2010. Ed. Robert DoranGuides to scholarship
* ''The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature'', ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topicHistories of historical writing
* Arnold, John H. ''History: A Very Short Introduction'' (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. * Barnes, Harry Elmer. ''A history of historical writing'' (1962) * Barraclough, Geoffrey. ''History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences'', (1978) * Bauer, Stefan. ''The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform'' (Oxford University Press, 2020). * Bentley, Michael. ed., ''Companion to Historiography'', Routledge, 1997, , 39 chapters by experts * Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing'' (2 vol. Taylor & Francis, 1999), 1562 pp * Breisach, Ernst. ''Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern'', 3rd edition, 2007, * Budd, Adam, ed. ''The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources.'' (Routledge, 2009). * Cline, Howard F., ed.''Latin American History: Essays on Its Study and Teaching, 1898–1965''. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1965. * Cohen, H. Floris ''The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry'', (1994), * Conrad, Sebastian. ''The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century'' (2010) * Crymble, Adam. ''Technology and the Historian: Transformations in the Digital Age'' (University of Illinois, 2021), 241 pp * Fitzsimons, M.A. et al. eds. ''The development of historiography'' (1954) 471 pages; comprehensive global coverageFeminist historiography
* Bonnie G. Smith, ''The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice'', Harvard University Press 2000 * Gerda Lerner, ''The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History'', New York: Oxford University Press 1979 * Judith M. Bennett, ''History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006 * Julie Des Jardins, ''Women and the Historical Enterprise in America'', University of North Carolina Press, 2002 * Donna Guy, "Gender and Sexuality in Latin America" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 367–81. * Asunción Lavrin, "Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 132–54. * Mary Ritter Beard, ''Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities'' * Mary Spongberg, ''Writing women's history since the Renaissance'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 * Clare Hemmings, "Why Stories Matter: The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory", Duke University Press 2011National and regional studies
* Berger, Stefan et al., eds. ''Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800'' (1999Asia and Africa
* Cohen, Paul. ''Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past''. New York, London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p. Reprinted: 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author. . * R.C. Majumdar, Historiography in Modem India (Bombay, 1970) * Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey'' (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003) * Martin, Thomas R. ''Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History with Documents'' (2009) * E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004) * Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) * Shourie, Arun (2014). Eminent historians: Their technology, their line, their fraud. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India : HarperCollins Publishers. * Yerxa, Donald A. ''Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation'' (2008Britain
* Bann, Stephen. ''Romanticism and the Rise of History'' (Twayne Publishers, 1995) * Bentley, Michael. ''Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970'' (2006=British Empire
= * Berger, Carl. ''Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900'', (2nd ed. 1986) * Bhattacharjee, J. B. ''Historians and Historiography of North East India'' (2012) * Davison, Graeme. ''The Use and Abuse of Australian History'', (2000France
* Burke, Peter. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–2014'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2015). * * Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen, eds. ''French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France'' (2010) 40 long essays by expertsGermany
* Fletcher, Roger. "Recent developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its critics." ''German Studies Review'' (1984): 451–480Latin America
* Adelman, Jeremy, ed. ''Colonial Legacies''. New York: Routledge 1999. * Coatsworth, John. "Cliometrics and Mexican History," ''Historical Methods''18:1 (Winter 1985)31–37. * * * Lockhart, James. "The Social History of Early Latin America". ''Latin American Research Review'' 1972. * Moya, José C. ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History''. New York: Oxford University Press 2011. * *United States
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington'' (1968) * Peter Novick, Novick, Peter. ''That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession'' (1988), * Palmer, William W. "All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States, 1970–2010", ''Journal of The Historical Society'' (2012), 12: 111–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x * Palmer, William. ''Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians'' (2001) * Parish, Peter J., ed. ''Reader's Guide to American History'' (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics * Wish, Harvey. ''The American Historian'' (1960), covers pre-1920Themes, organizations, and teaching
* Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. ''Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi'' (1998References
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