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Hindi literature ( hi, हिन्दी साहित्य, translit=hindī sāhitya) includes literature in the various
Hindi language Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
which have
writing system A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...
s. Earliest forms of Hindi literature are attested in poetry of
Apabhraṃśa Apabhraṃśa ( sa, अपभ्रंश, , Prakrit: , ta, அவப்பிரஞ்சனம், , ) is a term used by '' vaiyākaraṇāḥ'' (native grammarians) since Patañjali to refer to languages spoken in North India before the ri ...
like Awadhi, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi and Marwari languages. Hindi literature is composed in three broad styles- गद्य (Gadya-prose), पद्य( Padya- poetry) and चम्प्पू (Campū - Prosimetrum.) In terms of historical development, it is broadly classified into five prominent forms (genres) based on the date of production. They are: * Ādi Kāl /Vīr-Gāthā Kāl (आदि काल/वीरगाथा काल) -- '' u>prior to & including 14th century CE./u>'' This period was marked by Poems extolling brave warriors. * *
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
Kāl (भक्ति काल) -''- 4th–18th century CE./u>'' Prominent genre in this period was Poems of Devotion due to
Bhakti Movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th cent ...
. * * * * * Rīti Kāl /Śṛṅgār Kāl (रीति काल/ शृंगार काल) -- '' 8th–20th century CE./u>'' The major genre of this period is Poems of Romance which are marked with high ornamentalism. * * * Ādhunik Kāl (आधुनिक काल) -- '' rom 1850 CE onwards./u>'' Literally means Modern literature. * Nayvottar Kāl (नव्योत्तर काल) -- '' rom 1980 CE onwards./u>'' Literally means Post- Modern literature. * * * * * * The literature was produced in dialects such as Khariboli,
Braj Braj, also known as Vraj, Vraja, Brij or Brijbhoomi, is a region in India on both sides of the Yamuna river with its centre at Mathura-Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh state encompassing the area which also includes Palwal and Ballabhgarh in Hary ...
,
Bundeli Bundeli ( Devanagari: बुन्देली or बुंदेली; or Bundelkhandi) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Bundelkhand region of central India. It belongs to the Central Indo-Ayran languages and is part of the Western H ...
,
Awadhi Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name ''Awadh'' is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city ...
,
Kannauji Kannauji is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Kannauj region of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Kannauji is closely related to Hindustani, with a lexical similarity of 83–94% with Hindi. Some consider it to be a dialect of Hindust ...
, as well as Marwari,
Magahi The Magahi language (), also known as Magadhi (), is a language spoken in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal states of eastern India, and in the Terai of Nepal. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magahi, from which the latter's name deriv ...
,
Bhojpuri Bhojpuri (;Bhojpuri entry, Oxford Dictionaries
, Oxford U ...
and
Chhattisgarhi Chhattisgarhi ( / ) is an Indo-Aryan language, spoken by approximately 16 million people from Chhattisgarh & other states. It is mostly spoken in the Indian states of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra. It is closely related ...
. From the 20th century, works produced in
Standard Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
, a
register Register or registration may refer to: Arts entertainment, and media Music * Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc. * ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller * Registration (organ), th ...
of Hindustani written in the Devanagari script, are sometimes regarded as the only basis of modern literature in Hindi.


History


Adi Kal or Vir-Gatha kal (c. 1050 to 1375)

Literature of ''Adi kal'' (c. before the 15th century CE) was developed in the regions of
Kannauj Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...
,
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
,
Ajmer Ajmer is one of the major and oldest cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. It is located at the centre of Rajasthan. It is also known as heart of Rajasthan. The city was established as "' ...
stretching up to central India. ''
Prithviraj Raso The ''Prithviraj Raso'' (IAST: Pṛthvīrāja Rāso) is a Braj language epic poem about the life of Prithviraj Chauhan (reign. c. 1177–1192 CE). It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. ...
'', an epic poem written by Chand Bardai (1149 – c. 1200), is considered one of the first works in the history of Hindi literature. Chand Bardai was a court poet of
Prithviraj Chauhan Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; reign. – 1192 CE), popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, was a king from the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, with his ca ...
, the famous ruler of
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
and
Ajmer Ajmer is one of the major and oldest cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. It is located at the centre of Rajasthan. It is also known as heart of Rajasthan. The city was established as "' ...
during the invasion of Muhammad of Ghor. Jayachandra, the last ruler of Kannauj gave more patronage to
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
rather than local dialects. Harsha, the author of ''Naishdhiya Charitra'', was his court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet in Mahoba, and Nalha, the royal poet in
Ajmer Ajmer is one of the major and oldest cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. It is located at the centre of Rajasthan. It is also known as heart of Rajasthan. The city was established as "' ...
, were the other prominent literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in the Second Battle of Tarain, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army of Muhammad of Ghor. Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted. Some Siddha and Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. The Siddhas belonged to the
Vajrayana Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
, a later Buddhist sect. Some scholars argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not an earlier form of Hindi, but
Magadhi The Magahi language (), also known as Magadhi (), is a language spoken in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal states of eastern India, and in the Terai of Nepal. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magahi, from which the latter's name deriv ...
Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
. Nathpanthis were
yogis A yogi is a practitioner of Yoga, including a sannyasin or practitioner of meditation in Indian religions.A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. xxiii, 297-299, 331 ...
who practised the
Hatha yoga Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga which uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel the vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ ''haṭha'' literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some haṭha ...
. Some
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
and ''Rasau'' (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period. In the
Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the
Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).
and later under the
Nizam The Nizams were the rulers of Hyderabad from the 18th through the 20th century. Nizam of Hyderabad (Niẓām ul-Mulk, also known as Asaf Jah) was the title of the monarch of the Hyderabad State ( divided between the state of Telangana, Mar ...
s of
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern Indi ...
. It was written in the Persian script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word ''Hindavi'' to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works – Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote ''Nishatul Ishq''. The first Deccani poet was Nizami. During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and
Gorakhnath Gorakhnath (also known as Goraksanath, c. early 11th century) was a Hindu yogi, saint who was the influential founder of the Nath Hindu monastic movement in India He is considered one of the two notable disciples of Matsyendranath. His followe ...
became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of
Vidyapati Vidyapati ( – 1460), also known by the sobriquet ''Maithil Kavi Kokil'' (the poet cuckoo of Maithili), was a Maithili and Sanskrit polymath-poet-saint, playwright, composer, biographer, philosopher, law-theorist, writer, courtier ...
's Maithili works.


Bhakti kaal (c. 1375 to 1700)

The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
movement and composition of long, epic poems.
Awadhi Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name ''Awadh'' is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city ...
and
Braj Bhasha The Braj language, ''Braj Bhasha'', also known as Vraj Bhasha or Vrij Bhasha or Braj Bhāṣā or Braji or Brij Bhasha or Braj Boli, is a Western Hindi language. Along with Awadhi (a variety of Eastern Hindi), it was one of the two predominant ...
were the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi are
Malik Muhammad Jayasi Malik Muhammad Jayasi (1477– 1542) was an Indian Sufi poet and pir. He wrote in the Awadhi language, and in the Persian Nastaʿlīq script. His best known work is the epic poem ''Padmavat'' (1540). Biography Much of the information abo ...
's ''Padmavat'' and
Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, b ...
's ''
Ramacharitamanas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the '' Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). Thi ...
''. The major works in Braj dialect are
Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, b ...
's '' Vinaya Patrika'' and Surdas's ''Sur Sagar''.
Sadhukaddi Sadhukkadi (सधुक्कड़ी ) was a vernacular dialect of the Hindi Belt of medieval North India, and a mix of Hindi languages ( Hindustani, Haryanvi, Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Marwari) and Punjabi, hence it is also commonly call ...
was also a language commonly used, especially by
Kabir Kabir Das (1398–1518) was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint. His writings influenced Hinduism's Bhakti movement, and his verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth Sahib, the Satguru Granth Sahib of Saint Garib Das ...
in his poetry and dohas. The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry. These included Verse Patterns like ''
Doha Doha ( ar, الدوحة, ad-Dawḥa or ''ad-Dōḥa'') is the capital city and main financial hub of Qatar. Located on the Persian Gulf coast in the east of the country, north of Al Wakrah and south of Al Khor (city), Al Khor, it is home to m ...
'' (two-liners), ''Sortha'', ''Chaupaya'' (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the various
Rasas Rasas ( ar, رساس, also spelled Rsas) is a village in southern Syria, administratively part of the al-Suwayda Governorate, located south of al-Suwayda. Nearby localities include 'Ira to the southwest, Sahwat Bilata to the east, al-Ruha to th ...
. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in the ''Vir Rasa'' (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of
rasas Rasas ( ar, رساس, also spelled Rsas) is a village in southern Syria, administratively part of the al-Suwayda Governorate, located south of al-Suwayda. Nearby localities include 'Ira to the southwest, Sahwat Bilata to the east, al-Ruha to th ...
from ''Shringara rasa'' (love), ''Vir Rasa'' (Heroism). Bhakti poetry had two schools – the ''Nirguna'' school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the ''Saguna'' school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations).
Kabir Kabir Das (1398–1518) was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint. His writings influenced Hinduism's Bhakti movement, and his verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth Sahib, the Satguru Granth Sahib of Saint Garib Das ...
and
Guru Nanak Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also referred to as ('father Nānak'), was the founder of Sikhism and is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth is celebrated w ...
belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the
Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...
philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
poets like Surdas,
Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, b ...
and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like ''
Ramacharitamanas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the '' Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). Thi ...
'', ''Sur Saravali'', ''Sur Sagar'' extolling
Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bei ...
and
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...
. This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like
Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana Khanzada Mirza Khan Abdul Rahim (17 December 1556 – 1 October 1627), popularly known as simply Rahim and titled ''Khan-i-Khanan'', was a poet who lived in India during the rule of Mughal emperor Akbar, who was Rahim's mentor. He was one of ...
who was a minister to Mughal emperor
Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...
and was also a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.


Riti-kavya kal (c. 1700 to 1900)

In the ''Ritikavya'' or ''Ritismagra Kavya'' period, the erotic element became predominant in the
Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwardly related to
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
, their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in
Braj Braj, also known as Vraj, Vraja, Brij or Brijbhoomi, is a region in India on both sides of the Yamuna river with its centre at Mathura-Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh state encompassing the area which also includes Palwal and Ballabhgarh in Hary ...
, and the description of the physical beauty of
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...
and
Radha Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also d ...
,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age is the Bihari Satsai of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with ''
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
'' (devotion), ''Neeti'' (Moral policies) and ''Shringar'' (love). The first Hindi books, using the Devanagari script or
Nāgarī script The Nāgarī script or Northern Nagari of Kashi is the ancestor of Devanagari, Nandinagari and other variants, and was first used to write Prakrit and Sanskrit. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for Devanagari script.Kathleen Kuiper (2 ...
were one Heera Lal's treatise on
Ain-i-Akbari The ''Ain-i-Akbari'' ( fa, ) or the "Administration of Akbar", is a 16th-century detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, written by his court historian, Abu'l Fazl in the Persian language. It for ...
, called Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika, and Rewa Maharaja's treatise on
Kabir Kabir Das (1398–1518) was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint. His writings influenced Hinduism's Bhakti movement, and his verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth Sahib, the Satguru Granth Sahib of Saint Garib Das ...
. Both books came out in 1795. Munshi
Lallu Lal Lallu Lal (1763–1835) was an academic, author and translator from British India. He was an instructor in the Hindustani language at Fort William College in Hastings, Calcutta. He is notable for ''Prem Sagar'', the first work in modern literary ...
's Hindi translation of Sanskrit
Hitopadesha ''Hitopadesha'' (Sanskrit: हितोपदेशः, IAST: ''Hitopadeśa'', "Beneficial Advice") is an Indian text in the Sanskrit language consisting of fables with both animal and human characters. It incorporates maxims, worldly wisdom and ...
was published in 1809. Lala Srinivas Das published a novel in Hindi Pariksha guru in the
Nāgarī script The Nāgarī script or Northern Nagari of Kashi is the ancestor of Devanagari, Nandinagari and other variants, and was first used to write Prakrit and Sanskrit. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for Devanagari script.Kathleen Kuiper (2 ...
in 1886. Shardha Ram Phillauri wrote a Hindi novel
Bhagyawati ''Bhagyawati'' is an 1888 novel by Shardha Ram Phillauri. The book is now acknowledged as the one of the first novels in Hindi. Previously, Lala Sri Niwas had written his Hindi novel Pariksha guru, which was published in 1882. ''Bhagyawati'' is ...
which was published in 1888. Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement.


Adhunik kal (c. 1900 onwards)

In 1800, the
British East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and South ...
established
Fort William College Fort William College (also known as the College of Fort William) was an academy of oriental studies and a centre of learning, founded on 18 August 1800 by Lord Wellesley, then Governor-General of British India, located within the Fort William co ...
at
Calcutta Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, commer ...
. The college president J. B. Gilchrist hired professors to write books in Hindustani. Some of these books were ''Prem Sagar'' by
Lallu Lal Lallu Lal (1763–1835) was an academic, author and translator from British India. He was an instructor in the Hindustani language at Fort William College in Hastings, Calcutta. He is notable for ''Prem Sagar'', the first work in modern literary ...
, ''Naasiketopaakhyan'' by Sadal Mishra, ''Sukhsagar'' by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and ''Rani Ketaki ki kahani'' by Munshi Inshallah Khan. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.


Dwivedi Yug

The ''Dwivedi Yug'' ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing the modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.Lucy (aka "Ludmila") Rosenstein, editor, translator, author of th
"Introduction"
''New Poetry in Hindi: Nayi Kavita: An Introduction'', Anthem Press, 2004,
Dwivedi became the editor of ''
Saraswati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a g ...
'' in 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of India, which was established in 1900. He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithili Sharan Gupt's ''Bharat-bharati'', which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's ''Bharatgit'' is another renowned poem of the period. Some scholars have labelled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnestly concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations to the modern Hindi poetry and that it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi. Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.


Chhayavaadi Yug

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as '' Chhayavaad'' (''shadowism'') and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as ''Chhayavaadi''. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major ''Chhayavaadi'' poets. Poet Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well. This period of Neo-romanticism, represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades. Other important genres of ''Adhunik Sahitya'' (Modernism) are: Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of Ajneya and the '' Tar Saptak'' poets, also known as ''Nayi Kavita'' (New Poetry) and ''Nayi Kahani'' (New Story) of Nirmal Verma and others; followed by Pragativad (Progressivism) of
Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh (गजानन माधव मुक्तिबोध) (13 November 1917 – 11 September 1964) was one of the most prominent Hindi poets, essayists, literary and political critics, and fiction writers of the 20th cen ...
and other authors.


Nakenwad

Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in the 1950s was ''Nakenwad'', a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers –
Nalin Vilochan Sharma Pandit Nalin Vilochan Sharma (18 February 1916 – 12 September 1961) was a professor of Hindi Literature in University of Patna. He started the ''Nakenwad'' movement in Hindi literature. He was the son of Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Ram Avatar Sh ...
, Kesari Kumar, and
Naresh Mehta Naresh Mehta (15 February 1922 - 22 November 2000) was a Hindi writer. There are over 50 published works in his name, ranging from poetry to plays. He received several literary awards, most notably the Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi in 1988 fo ...
all poets of note in their own right. Apart from being poets, Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history. Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge – philosophy, history, art and culture, all pressed into the service of literary appraisal and analysis.


Genres of Hindi Literature


Hindi Kavita (Poetry)

Hindi has a rich legacy of poetry. There are several genres of
Kavita Kavita (Hindi: कविता) is a feminine given name. Notable people named Kavita * Kavita K. Barjatya (born 1977), Indian producer * Kavita Channe (born 1980), American sports announcer * Kavita Daswani (born 1971), American-Indian writ ...
based on (e.g., Shringar, Karun, Veer,
Hāsya Hāsya (Sanskrit: हास्य) is a Sanskrit word for one of the nine rasas or bhava (mood) of Indian aesthetics, usually translated as humour or comedy. The colour associated with hasya is white and deity, ''Pramatha'', and leads to exultatio ...
, etc.). ''Hasya Kavita'' is humorous comic poetry in Hindi. It is particularly famous due to Hindi kavi sammelans.
Bal kavita Bal kavita are poems written for children in Hindi. See also * Hindi literature Hindi literature ( hi, हिन्दी साहित्य, translit=hindī sāhitya) includes literature in the various Hindi language which have wr ...
is children's rhymes in Hindi. Many attempts have been made to document Hindi poetry. Some of the most comprehensive online collections for Hindi poetry are Kavitakosh and
Kavita Kavita (Hindi: कविता) is a feminine given name. Notable people named Kavita * Kavita K. Barjatya (born 1977), Indian producer * Kavita Channe (born 1980), American sports announcer * Kavita Daswani (born 1971), American-Indian writ ...
. The most classy content that has created new audiences who were not looking for Hindi poetry or Hindi content is Hindi Kavita. This movement started in 2014 by Manish Gupta has generated an entirely new market and brought many projects to the fore. Many award-winning poets, scholars, journalists and celebrities from film, television and theatre have come forward to support the cause and take it further.


Vyangya (Hindi Satire)

The rhetoric of satire is called
Vyangya Vyangya means satire in Hindi literature. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour in Hindi literature. Some of the better known writers in this genre are Harishankar Parsai, Sri Lal Sukla, K. P. Saxena, Gyan Chaturvedi, Sur ...
in Hindi. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour. Some of the better known writers in this genre are, Harishankar Parsai (Hindi: हरिशंकर परसाई) (22 August 1924 – 1995) was a Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style.,
Sri Lal Sukla Shrilal Shukla (31 December 1925 – 28 October 2011) was a Hindi writer, notable for his satire. He worked as a PCS officer for the state government of Uttar Pradesh, later inducted into the IAS. He has written over 25 books, including R ...
,
Suryakumar Pandey Suryakumar Pandey (born 10 October 1954) is an Indian poet, humorist, satirist and writer. During his literary career, Pandey has contributed to various genres of Hindi literature including ''Hasya Kavita'' (humorous comic poetry), '' Vyangya'' ...
etc.


Hindi travel literature

Rahul Sankrityayan Rahul Sankrityayan (born Kedarnath Pandey; 9 April 1893 – 14 April 1963) was an Indian writer and a polyglot who wrote in Hindi. He played a pivotal role in giving travelogue a 'literary form'. He was one of the most widely travelled scholars ...
, Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' and Baba Nagarjun were some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi
Travel Literature The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century CE. In the early modern pe ...
(''Yatra Vritanta'').
Rahul Sankrityayan Rahul Sankrityayan (born Kedarnath Pandey; 9 April 1893 – 14 April 1963) was an Indian writer and a polyglot who wrote in Hindi. He played a pivotal role in giving travelogue a 'literary form'. He was one of the most widely travelled scholars ...
was one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the (''"Father of Hindi
Travel literature The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century CE. In the early modern pe ...
"''). Baba Nagarjun was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ("''Janakavi- the People's Poet''").


Hindi playwriting

The pioneer of Hindi theatre as well as playwrighting, Bhartendu Harishchandra wrote ''Satya Harishchandra'' (1875), ''Bharat Durdasha'' (1876) and ''Andher Nagari'' (1878), in the late 19th century, Jaishankar Prasad became the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays like ''Skanda Gupta'' (1928), ''Chandragupta'' (1931) and ''Dhruvswamini'' (1933). As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of Habib Tanvir did in the 1950s–90s, Jana Natya Manch of Safdar Hashmi did in the 1970s–80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction. Yet we have playwrights like Jagdish Chandra Mathur (''Konark'') and
Upendranath Ashk Upendranath Sharma "Ashk", (14 December 1910 – 19 January 1996) was an Indian novelist, short story writer and playwright. He was born in Jalandhar, Punjab. In 1933 he wrote his second short story collection in Urdu called ''Aurat Ki Fitrat'' ...
(''Anjo Didi''), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting, Mohan Rakesh, who started with ''
Ashadh Ka Ek Din ''Ashadh Ka Ek Din'' (Hindi: आषाढ़ का एक दिन, One Day in Ashadh) is a Hindi play by Mohan Rakesh that debuted in 1958 and is considered the first Modern Hindi play. The play received a Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for best p ...
'' (1958), ''Adhe Adhure'' and ''Lehron Ke Rajhans'',
Dharamvir Bharati Dharamvir Bharati (25 December 1926 – 4 September 1997) was a renowned Hindi poet, author, playwright and a social thinker of India. He was the chief editor of the popular Hindi weekly magazine '' Dharmayug'', from 1960 till 1987.The Illustr ...
, who wrote '' Andha Yug'', and other playwrights like
Surendra Verma Surendra Verma (born 7 September 1941) is a leading Hindi litterateur and playwright. He started out as a playwright, when his play ''Surya Ki Antim Kiran Se Surya Ki Pahli Kiran Tak'' (From sunset to sunrise, 1972) became quite well known; it ...
, and Bhisham Sahni.


Hindi essay-writing

Kuber Nath Rai is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing. His collections of essays ''Gandha Madan'', ''Priya neel-kanti'', ''Ras Aakhetak'', ''Vishad Yog'', ''Nishad Bansuri'', ''Parna mukut'' have enormously enriched the form of essay. A scholar of
Indian culture Indian culture is the heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems, artifacts and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse India. The term ...
and western literature, he was proud of Indian heritage. His love for natural beauty and Indian folk literatures and preference for agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists in
Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
.


Prominent figures

* Chand Bardai (1148–1191), author of ''
Prithviraj Raso The ''Prithviraj Raso'' (IAST: Pṛthvīrāja Rāso) is a Braj language epic poem about the life of Prithviraj Chauhan (reign. c. 1177–1192 CE). It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. ...
''. * Amir Khusro (1253–1325 AD), author of and in the Hindavi dialect. *
Vidyapati Vidyapati ( – 1460), also known by the sobriquet ''Maithil Kavi Kokil'' (the poet cuckoo of Maithili), was a Maithili and Sanskrit polymath-poet-saint, playwright, composer, biographer, philosopher, law-theorist, writer, courtier ...
(1352–1448), a prominent poet of Eastern dialects. *
Kabir Kabir Das (1398–1518) was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint. His writings influenced Hinduism's Bhakti movement, and his verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth Sahib, the Satguru Granth Sahib of Saint Garib Das ...
(1398–1518), a major figure of the
bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
(devotional) movement. * Surdas (1467–1583), author of ''Sahitya Lahari'', ''Sur Saravali'', ''Sur Sagar'' etc. *
Malik Muhammad Jayasi Malik Muhammad Jayasi (1477– 1542) was an Indian Sufi poet and pir. He wrote in the Awadhi language, and in the Persian Nastaʿlīq script. His best known work is the epic poem ''Padmavat'' (1540). Biography Much of the information abo ...
(1477–1542), author of the ''
Padmavat ''Padmavat'' (or ''Padmawat'') is an epic poem written in 1540 by Sufi poet Malik Muhammad Jayasi, who wrote it in the Hindustani language of Awadhi, and originally in the Persian Nastaʿlīq script. It is the oldest extant text among the ...
'' (1540) etc. * Mirabai (1504–1560), author of ''Mira Padavali'' etc. *
Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, b ...
(1532–1623), author of ''
Ramacharitamanas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the '' Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). Thi ...
'', ''Vinay Patrika'' etc. * Keshavdas (1555–1617), author of ''Rasikpriya'' etc. *
Raskhan Syed Ibrahim Khan (1548-1628) was an Indian Sufism, Sufi Muslim poet who became a devotee of the Hindu deity Krishna. He was either born in Pihani (Hardoi) or Amroha, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India. His original name was Saiyad Ibrahim and R ...
(1548–1628), a major figure of the
bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
(devotional) movement. *
Banarasidas Banarasidas (15861643) was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. He is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story), composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Ma ...
(1586–1643) who is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story),. * Bihari (1595–1664) became famous by writing '' Satasai'' (Seven Hundred Verses). * Bhushan (1612–1713), author of ''Shivabavani'', ''Chhatrasal Dashak'' etc. *
Vrind Vrind (1643–1723) was an Indian saint and poet in Hindi language from Marwar, in present Rajasthan. He was an important poet of the Ritikal period of Hindi literature, known for his poems on ethics (Niti), and most known for his work ''Nitisat ...
(1643–1723), author of ''Nitisatsai'', ''Vrind Satsai'' etc. *
Guru Gobind Singh Guru Gobind Singh (; 22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708), born Gobind Das or Gobind Rai the tenth Sikh Guru, a spiritual master, warrior, poet and philosopher. When his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was executed by Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Sin ...
(1669–1708), author of ''Bichitra Natak'' etc. * Sūdan (1700–1753), author of ''Sujān Charitra'' etc. *
Lallu Lal Lallu Lal (1763–1835) was an academic, author and translator from British India. He was an instructor in the Hindustani language at Fort William College in Hastings, Calcutta. He is notable for ''Prem Sagar'', the first work in modern literary ...
(1763–1835), translator of ''
Baital Pachisi ''Vetala Panchavimshati'' ( sa, वेतालपञ्चविंशति, IAST: ) or ''Betaal Pachisi'' ("''Twenty-five (tales) of Betaal''"), is a collection of tales and legends within a frame story, from India. It is also known as inter ...
'', ''
Shakuntala Shakuntala (Sanskrit: ''Śakuntalā'') is the wife of Dushyanta and the mother of Emperor Bharata. Her story is told in the ''Adi Parva'' of the ancient Indian epic ''Mahabharata'' and dramatized by many writers, the most famous adaption bei ...
'' etc., and author of ''Prem Sagar'', etc. *
Ganga Das Ganga Das (1823–1913) was a saint of the Udasi sect and known for piety and Hindi poetry. He was born in 1823 to a Jat people, Jat family on the day of ''Basant Panchami'' at Rasulpur Bahlolpur village, Ghaziabad district, India, Hapur district ...
(1823–1913), author of about fifty kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, he is known as Bhismpitama of the Hindi poetry. * Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850–1885), author of ''Andher Nagari'' etc.; his works are compiled in ''Bharatendu Granthavali''. * Devaki Nandan Khatri (1861–1913), author of mystery novels like '' Chandrakanta'', ''Bhootnath'', etc. * Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1864–1938), author of ''Kavya Manjusha'', ''Sugandh'', ''Sahitya Sandarbh'', ''Sahitya Vichar'', etc. * Munshi Premchand (1880–1936), considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists of all time. His novels include '' Godaan'', '' Karmabhoomi'', '' Gaban'', '' Mansarovar'', '' Idgah'', etc. * Maithili Sharan Gupt (1886–1964), author of ''Saket'', ''Yashodhara'', etc. * Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937), poet, novelist, playwright, stalwart of the literary '' Chhayavaadi'' movement. His greatest works are '' Kamayani'', ''Dhruvswamini'', ''Skandagupta'', etc. * Makhanlal Chaturvedi (1889–1968), first recipient of
Sahitya Akademi Award The Sahitya Akademi Award is a literary honour in India, which the Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, annually confers on writers of the most outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the 22 languages of the ...
in Hindi for his work ''Him Taringini'', works include ''Yug Charan'', ''Pushp Ki Abhilasha'', etc. *
Rahul Sankrityayan Rahul Sankrityayan (born Kedarnath Pandey; 9 April 1893 – 14 April 1963) was an Indian writer and a polyglot who wrote in Hindi. He played a pivotal role in giving travelogue a 'literary form'. He was one of the most widely travelled scholars ...
(1893–1962), the father of Indian travelled literature. * Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' (1896–1961), one of the "four pillars" of the ''Chhayavaad'' movement. * Sumitranandan Pant, (1900–1977) eminent Hindi poet who wrote mainly on nature. *
Yashpal Yashpal (3 December 1903 – 26 December 1976) was a Hindi-language writer who is sometimes considered to be the most gifted writer since Premchand. A political commentator and a socialist, he wrote in a range of genres, including essays ...
(1903–1976), author of '' Jhutha Sach'', ''
Meri Teri Uski Baat ''Meri Teri Uski Baat'' ( hi, मेरी तेरी उसकी बात) is a novel written by Yashpal. This novel is based on the history of Indian independence movement. This novel won the Hindi-language Sahitya Akademi Award The S ...
'', etc. *
Jainendra Kumar Jainendra Kumar (2 January 1905 – 24 December 1988) was a 20th century Indian writer who wrote in Hindi. He wrote novels include ''Sunita'' and ''Tyagapatra''. He was awarded one of India's highest civilian honours, the Padma Bhushan in 1971. ...
(1905–1988), An extremely influential figure in 20th-century Hindi literature. * Hazariprasad Dwivedi (1907–1979), novelist, literary historian. * Mahadevi Varma (1907–1987), one of the "four pillars" of the ''Chhayavaad'' movement. * Ramdhari Singh Dinkar (1908–1974), hailed as a Rashtrakavi. *
Nagarjun Vaidyanath Mishra (30 June 1911 – 5 November 1998), better known by his pen name Nagarjun, was a Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ''Janakavi ...
(1911–1998), hailed as Janakavi (The People's Poet). * Bhisham Sahni (1915–2003), novelist, playwright, author of '' Tamas'', Madhavi, etc. *
Nalin Vilochan Sharma Pandit Nalin Vilochan Sharma (18 February 1916 – 12 September 1961) was a professor of Hindi Literature in University of Patna. He started the ''Nakenwad'' movement in Hindi literature. He was the son of Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Ram Avatar Sh ...
(1916–1961), one of the pioneers of ''Nakenwad'' movement. * Phanishwar Nath 'Renu' (1921–1977), novelist best known for ''
Maila Anchal ''Maila Aanchal'' ( hi, मैला आँचल; en, The Soiled Border) is a 1954 Hindi novel written by Phanishwar Nath Renu. After Premchand's Godan, 'Maila Anchal' is regarded as the most significant Hindi novel in the Hindi literature tra ...
'', ''
Juloos ''Juloos''Juloos at Google books
is a novel by acclaim ...
'', etc. * Harishankar Parsai (1922–1995), known for satirical works. *
Naresh Mehta Naresh Mehta (15 February 1922 - 22 November 2000) was a Hindi writer. There are over 50 published works in his name, ranging from poetry to plays. He received several literary awards, most notably the Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi in 1988 fo ...
(1922–2000), poet, playwright, one of the pioneers of ''Nakenwad'' movement. * Mohan Rakesh (1925–1972), novelist, playwright known for ''
Ashadh Ka Ek Din ''Ashadh Ka Ek Din'' (Hindi: आषाढ़ का एक दिन, One Day in Ashadh) is a Hindi play by Mohan Rakesh that debuted in 1958 and is considered the first Modern Hindi play. The play received a Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for best p ...
'', ''Andhere Band Kamre'', ''Na Aane Wala Kal'', etc. *
Dharmavir Bharati Dharamvir Bharati (25 December 1926 – 4 September 1997) was a renowned Hindi poet, author, playwright and a social thinker of India. He was the chief editor of the popular Hindi weekly magazine '' Dharmayug'', from 1960 till 1987.The Illustr ...
(1926–1997), a renowned writer, author of '' Gunaho Ka Devta'', ''
Suraj Ka Satvan Ghoda ''Suraj Ka Satvan Ghoda'' () is a 1992 Indian Hindi film directed by Shyam Benegal and based on the novel The Sun's Seventh Horse by Dharmavir Bharati. It won the 1993 National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi. The self-reflexive fi ...
'', etc. * Raghuvir Sahay (1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist. * Nirmal Verma (1929–2005), one of the founders of the ''Nai Kahani'' literary movement. * Kamleshwar (1932–2007), author of '' Kitne Pakistan''. *
Dushyant Kumar Dushyant Kumar Tyagi (1 September 1931 – 30 December 1975) was an Indian poet of modern Hindi literature. He is famous for writing Hindi Ghazals, and is generally recognised as one of the foremost Hindi poets of the 20th century. Person ...
(1933–1975), prominent Hindi poet snd composer of ghazals. * Kashinath Singh (1937–) author of ''Rehan Par Ragghu'', '' Kashi Ka Assi'', etc. * Narendra Kohli (1940–2021), known for reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose. *
Geetanjali Shree Geetanjali Shree ( hi, गीतांजलि श्री; born 12 June 1957), also known as Geetanjali Pandey, is an Indian Hindi-language novelist and short-story writer based in New Delhi, India. She is the author of several short stories ...
(1957–), author of Ret Samadhi which won the International Booker Prize in 2022


Eminent Hindi journalists

Bharatendu Harishchandra Bharatendu Harishchandra began his career as a journalist at the age of 17. Published Kavi Vachan Sudha (1867) a monthly dedicated to ancient and medieval poetry. Published Harishchandra Magazine in 1873 – a general interest magazine. Published Bala Bodhini from 1874 – for women and young girls. KVS was acknowledged to be the finest literary journal in any Indian language of that time, and was on par with the best of English journals. Bharatendu kept the journal up until his death 1885. Because of his extraordinary achievements, he is considered the most prolific Hindi journalist. Madan Mohan Malaviya Madan Mohan Malaviya was born in 1861 in Allahabad to a Brahmin family. From 1885 to 1887 was the editor of Indian Opinion. He was a strong supporter of the Congress. He helped launch the newspaper Dainik Hindustan and was its editor from 1887 to 1889. He was a close friend of many eminent Hindi writers like Gopalram Gehmari, Amrutlal Chakravarty and Pandit Pratap Narayan Mishra. Along with Bal Mukund Gupta, he launched an Urdu journal 'Kohinoor' from Lahore. In those days, Gupta was not a facile Hindi scholar, but under Malviya's training, Gupta became editor of Bharat Mitra. In 1908, Malviya founded a new revolutionary journal Abhyudaya from Prayag. The renowned writer Purushottam Das Tandon was a frequent contributor to it. After Abhyudaya, Malviya founded a monthly magazine 'Maryada', in 1909 he founded a daily 'Leader' and later on another daily – 'Bharat'. Malviya was a great patriot and his love for his country was seen in all of his writings. He also contributed to Aaj, and helped to found the Hindustan Times in 1933, along with its Hindi counterpart Hindustan. Babu Gulabrai (17 January 1888 – 13 April 1963) (pen name: Gulabrai MA) was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature. Durgaprasad Mishra Born in Kashmir, he came to Calcutta and started Bharat Mitra in 1878. In 1879, he began another weekly magazine- Saar Sudhanidhi but it closed down in that same year. On 17 August 1880, he started a 3rd weekly- Ucchit Vakta- meaning Right or Best Time. Ucchit Vakta focused on spreading the truth (about the British Raj) and fighting for justice. It became very popular for many years. Mishra underwent a lot of difficulties trying to bring out a critical publication at the time of the British Raj. At times he was the editor, writer and also sold the paper himself. He was an inspiration for many journalists, particularly Bal Mukund Gupta. Dharmvir Bharati Born on 25 December 1926,
Dharamvir Bharati Dharamvir Bharati (25 December 1926 – 4 September 1997) was a renowned Hindi poet, author, playwright and a social thinker of India. He was the chief editor of the popular Hindi weekly magazine '' Dharmayug'', from 1960 till 1987.The Illustr ...
graduated in BA (first class) in 1945 and in 1947 completed his MA in Hindi literature (first class) and finally did his PhD from Allahabad University. For some time he was principal of Allahabad University. He began his journalist career in Abhyudaya, a journal by Padmakant Malviya. He then joined Sangam, edited by Ilachand Joshi and then became editor of Dharmayug. Thanks to Bharati, this journal became very popular. During the 1971 war, Bharati reported from the frontlines of the battle. He covered all the horrors of the war. His series of reports, the finest in Hindi war journalism, were published under the title of 'Yudh Yatra'. As an honest and dedicated reporter, Bharati was unrivaled. After the war, he became editor of 2 more journals- Aalochana and Nikarshak. Bharati was also famous as a short story writer, poet, essayist and novelist. The best known of his works are 'Band Galli ka Aakhiri Makaan', 'Andha Yug', 'Kunpriya'.


See also

*
Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya is a central university located in Wardha, Maharashtra, India. History The university began through an Act of Parliament which received the assent of the President on 8 January 1997. The ...
, an Indian central university with a literary focus *
Hindustani orthography Hindustani (standardized Hindi and standardized Urdu) has been written in several different scripts. Most Hindi texts are written in the Devanagari script, which is derived from the Brāhmī script of Ancient India. Most Urdu texts are written ...


References


Bibliography

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Further reading

* ''Hindi Literature'', by Ram Awadh Dwivedi. Published by Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya, 1953. * ''A History of Hindi literature'', by K. B. Jindal. Published by Kitab Mahal, 1955. * ''Hindi Literature from Its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1984. . * ''Hindi Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1974. . * ''A New Voice for New Times: The Development of Modern Hindi Literature'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1981. . * ''An Encyclopaedia of World Hindi Literature'', by Ganga Ram Garg. Published by Concept Pub. Co., 1986.


External links


Hindi Language and Literature
{{Urdu topics Hindi Indian literature Hindi-language literature Literature by language Indian literature by language