Hexamilion wall

The Hexamilion wall ( el, Εξαμίλιον τείχος, "six-mile wall") was a defensive wall constructed across the Isthmus of Corinth, guarding the only land route onto the Peloponnese peninsula from mainland Greece.

History

Early fortifications

The ''Hexamilion'' stands at the end of a long series of attempts to fortify the isthmus stretching back to perhaps the Mycenean period. Many of the Peloponnesian cities wanted to pull back and fortify the isthmus instead of making a stand at Thermopylae when Xerxes invaded in 480 BC ( Herodotus' Histories 7.206). The issue arose again before the Battle of Salamis (Herodotos 8.40, 49, 56). Although the concept of a "Fortress Peloponnese" had been repeatedly suggested, fortification of the isthmus was of no utility without control of the sea, as Herodotus notes (7.138).

The Hexamilion and its history

The wall was constructed in the period between 408 AD and 450 AD, in the reign of Theodosius II during the time of the great Barbarian invasions into the Roman Empire to protect the whole of the Peloponnese. The attack of Alaric on Greece in 396 AD or the sack of Rome in 410 AD by the Visigoths may have motivated the construction. The wall ran from the Gulf of Corinth to the Saronic Gulf with a distance of 7,028 and 7,760 meters. The known fortress contained two gates (north and south), of which the northern gate functioned as the formal entrance to the Peloponnese. In the reign of Justinian, the wall was fortified with additional towers, reaching a total number of 153, with forts at either end and the Justinian's fortress at Isthmia. The building of the Fortress at Isthmia was left mostly to autonomous work crews that followed the same general instructions and material but operated in widely differing ways from one another. Whereas, for the wall itself, local Corinthians, irrespective of politics or religion would have contributed to the physical construction of the Hexamilion and the maintenance of any associated garrisons. Military use appears to have fallen off after the 7th century AD, and by the 11th AD domestic structures were being built into the wall.

Characteristics of the wall

The strategic fortress of Isthmia, while taking advantage of the terrain, was located to the southern side of the Hexamilion wall, north-east of the Poseidon Sanctuary. The wall was constructed with a rubble and mortar core faced with squared stones, where the blocks on the northern facade were larger and coalesced with more carefully implemented edges, while the southern face was conceived of smaller stones set in mortar. It is not certain how long it took to complete, but the importance given to the task is apparent from the scale of the construction; the ''Hexamilion'' is the largest archaeological structure in Greece. Due to the mass of the 7.5km wall made of the 7-meter high, and 3-meter thick, every structure in the region was cannibalized for stone for the effort, either being incorporated into the wall directly, as was the temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, or being burned into lime, as was the sanctuary of Hera at Perachora as well as much of the ancient statuary of Corinth. In which the material of the Sanctuary of Poseidon was evenly distributed and converted into the main entrance of the wall in an emplecton building technique in the first century. Including the incorporation of spolia (voussoirs, column drums, and inscribed blocks) in both the structure and roadway. The fortress was intimately tied into the defensive network, which is demonstrated by similarities in this construction technique. The fortress consisted of nineteen rectangular towers extruding from the walls of the 2.7-hectare area, and more than likely housed the military garrison that defended the Hexamilion as a whole. The main passageway through the wall was through this Isthmia fortress, where the north-east gate acted as the main entrance into the Peloponnese.

It is likely that the fortifications were damaged severely by earthquakes, which helped cause the rapid deterioration of the wall between renovations during Justinian's and Manuel II reigns. Most prominently, the earthquake of 551, which Procopius mentions in context as being particularly destructive to Greece.

Garrison

The garrison of the fortress of Isthmia in the 5th century likely consisted of four to eight tagmata. Historians believe the quality and state of the troops were similar to that of Procopius descriptions of the state of the soldiers that manned the fortification at Thermopylae prior to Justinian’s reign; as “local farmers who proved to be incapable of checking the advance of various invaders and so were replaced by comitatenses. Part of Justinian's repair on the Hexamilion wall was the instantiation of a garrison within the Fortress of Isthmia, which replaced the local farmers that previously manned the wall and fortress.

To upkeep the troops, the soldiers would provide some of their own food through farming south of the Hexamilion, although major aid would come from local farmers, merchants, artisans, and workmen, including other nearby towns, such as Corinth, and a system of rural villa supplying a considerable share of goods and services. Such villae rusticae were an important part of the economic exchange system in other parts of the Empire and are evident in Greece in Late Roman and Early Byzantine times. The variety of skilled labor contributed from the Hexamilion garrison allowed the creation of local granaries, contributing to a more intensive exploitation of the region. Although, given this growth in development, the demands on the countryside and local economy fluctuated based on the changing seasons, where a variety of skilled laborers created an economic intensification during the warmer seasons. Likewise, a drain on both the environment and economy would be posed during the seasons when their skills were not in use. This created a cyclic local economy based on the station of the troops, where the demands and production were in constant flux.

Effects on the locals

During its initial construction, the Hexamilion significantly restricted the number of passages into the Peloponnese. Here the roadway from Athens was made to pass directly through the eastern fortress and into the direction of Corinth to the west and Epidaurus to the east. With this the fortress of Isthmia and this portion of the wall was transformed into a major thoroughfare into southern Greece. These few guarded gateways of the strip certainly held points of taxation, which certainly helped boost the local economy of the region. The Hexamilion wall likely had immediate and long-term negative effects on the local population as well. The walls were built around the urban center of Rome during Theodosius II reign, the acquisition of land and clearing of buildings along the route of the wall would lead to conflict with individual property holders. In which, the views of the wall likely held as much state control as protection. While the scale of the repairs on the Hexamilion wall during Justinian's reign suggests the fortification project would have provided employment to local laborers, in which it influenced the distribution of wealth within the local economy, and likely brought troves of skilled laborers within the region.

Opposition

During its construction, refortification and after its completion, multiple archeological finds support the idea that locals opposed the construction of the wall. One such piece of evidence was the discovery of graffiti scratched onto the rear face just west of Tower 15, This was undoubtedly made by individuals associated with the wall's initial construction or repair as the etching occurred before the mortar had time to harden. The image depicts two galleys and a different kind of vessel seen as a boarding device interpreting naval combat and the notion of the Hexamlion’s lack of defense from any sea-bearing invasions or trade. As Frey notes, the Hexamilion could not defend against attack from the sea, as it would have been 10 meters on a side and would not have projected any significant distance to the sea. Although we cannot sincerely determine if these were the true intentions of those that carved these images in the mortar, or if they were a value of playfulness.

A second example were the findings of graves, during the excavations, between 1954 and 1976, found inexplicably at the base of a staircase leading to an upper fighting platform. These appear to be placed roughly a decade after the wall's initial completion. Whereas one of the graves resulted in the removal of the bottom tread of the staircase rendering the utility of one of the most important points of defense along the Hexamilion wall. The graves not only spread over decades, but many contained women and children, suggesting soon after its initial construction, the Fortress of Isthmia passed to local residents to maintain.

During the later sixth and early seventh century, both the Northeast and South Gates through the Fortress were sealed with thick walls on the well-worn roadways that led to Athens, Corinth, and Epidaurus. This comes as a surprise to researchers given the gates importance in connecting prominent cities. The construction style suggests they were built with haste and somewhat carelessly. Although the Northeast Gate was integrated with sluice gates for drainage, indicating a non-temporary residency. It is still unknown as to why the gates were sealed up, but explanations follow that the locals carried this construction as these events coincided with the timing of the Hexamilion gate repairs during the reign of Justinian. It may be the case that the local population of Isthmia resisted the alteration of their land turning into a major thoroughfare and acted to regain the area's character as Frey notes. These consecutive archeological findings reinforce this cyclic pattern of imperial concerns followed by local indifferences and opposition surrounding the Hexamilion wall.

Other than petty graffiti protests and grave marker placement to “demilitarize” the wall, we are aware of open revolts having occurred due to the construction of the Hexamilion. The refortification of the Isthmus during the invasion of the Ottoman Turks in 1415 CE under Emperor Manuel II reign led to an open revolt among the local population, in which Manuel put down by force. Where Manuel II saw the opposition as a resistance to a reinstatement of imperial control whereas the Panegyric to Manuel II, Chrysoloras documents a growing frustration with the continuous funding and building of the wall.

Destruction of the Hexamilion

There are many phases the Hexamilion wall endures, from its initial construction to its refortification and repairment throughout Justinian’s and Manuel II’s reign. Although, the main downfall of the monument arises from the invasions of the Ottoman Turks. While in 1415, the Byzantine emperor Manuel II personally supervised repairs over a period of forty days where the high cost of this effort caused unrest among the local elite. The wall was breached in 1423 and again in 1431 by the Ottomans under the command of Turahan Bey. Constantine Palaiologos, who was Despot of Morea before his accession to the throne of the Byzantine empire, and his brother Thomas restored the wall again in 1444, but the Ottomans breached it again in 1446 and in October 1452.

The fall of the Trans-Isthmian wall came during the battle between Constantine and the Turks starting on November 27, 1446. Murad II, a Turkish commander of an army said to have consisted of 50,000 - 60,000 men supposedly lined the entirety of the wall with new weapons of heavy artillery of long cannons, siege engines and scaling ladders. A vivid account of the assault by Chalkokondyles, after five days of fighting Murad signaled the final attack where on December 10, the Hexamilion was no more than a heap of ruins.Chrysoloras. “Comparison” After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the Ottoman conquest of the Peloponnese in 1460, the wall was abandoned. During its history, the wall never succeeded in fulfilling the function for which it was constructed, unless it acted as a deterrent. Elements of the wall are preserved south of the Corinth Canal and at the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia.

Images of the Hexamilion

Image: Hexamilion-2.jpg, Detail of a tower foundation showing a spoliated architectural member with carved molding.
Image: Hexamilion-3.jpg, Section of the wall facing northwest.
Image: Hexamilion-4.jpg, View along the line of the wall showing rubble core.
Image: Hexamilion-5.jpg, Detail of the construction showing rubble core and worked stone facing.
Image: Korinth Isthmus de.png, Map of the Isthmus of Corinth showing the Hexamilion location.

Notes

References

Secondary sources on the ''Hexamilion''

*Barker, J. W. (New Brunswick, NJ 1969). Manuel II Paleologus (1391–1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship.
*Clement, P. A. (Thessaloniki 1977) “The Date of the Hexamilion” in Essays in Memory of Basil Laourdas.
*Fowden, G. (JRA 8 (1995), p. 549-567). “Late Roman Achaea: Identity and Defense.”
*Gregory, T. E. (Princeton, NJ 1993). The ''Hexamilion'' and the Fortress. (Isthmia vol. 5).
*Hohlfelder, R. (GRBS 18 (1977), p. 173-179)
"Trans-Isthmian Walls in the Age of Justinian."
*Jenkins, R. J. H. and H. Megaw. (BSA 32 (1931/1932) p. 68-89). “Researches at Isthmia.”
*Johnson, S. (London 1983). Late Roman Fortifications.
*Lawrence, A. W. (BSA 78 (1983), p. 171-233). “A Skeletal History of Byzantine Fortification.”
*Leake, W. M. (London 1830). Travels in the Morea.
*Monceaux, P. (Gazette archéologique (1884), p. 273-285, 354-363). “Fouilles et recherches archéologiques au sanctuaire des Jeux Isthmiques.”
*Monceaux, P. (Gazette archéologique (1885), p. 205-214). “Fouilles et recherches archéologiques au sanctuaire des Jeux Isthmiques.”

*Pringle, D. (Oxford 1981). The Defense of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest. (British Archaeological Reports, International Series 99).
*Stroud, R. (Hesperia 40 (1971), p. 127-145). “An Ancient Fort on Mount Oneion.”
*Winter, F. E. (London 1971). Greek Fortifications.
*Wiseman, J. R. (Hesperia 32 (1963), p. 248-275). “A Trans-Isthmian Fortification Wall.”

Secondary sources on transisthmian fortifications

*Bodnar, E. W. (AJA 64 (1960), p. 165-172). “The Isthmian Fortifications in Oracular Prophecy.”
*Broneer, O. (Hesperia 35 (1966), p. 346-362). “The Cyclopean Wall on the Isthmus of Corinth and Its Bearing on Late Bronze Age Chronology.”
*Broneer, O. (Hesperia 37 (1968), p. 25-35). “The Cyclopean Wall on the Isthmus of Corinth, Addendum.”
*Caraher, W. R. and T. E. Gregory. (Hesperia 75.3 (2006), p. 327-356). “Fortifications of Mount Oneion, Corinthia.”
*Chrysoula, P. K. (AAA 4 (1971), p. 85-89). “The Isthmian Wall.”
* Dodwell, E. (London 1819). ''A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece II''
*Fimmen, E. (RE IX (1916), cols. 2256–2265). “Isthmos.”
*Hope-Simpson, R. (London 1965). Gazetteer and Atlas of Mycenaean Sites.
*Jansen, A. g. (Lewiston, NY 2002). A Study of the Remains of Mycenaean Roads and Stations of Bronze-Age Greece.
*Lawrence, A. W. (Oxford 1979). Greek Aims in Fortification.
*Vermeule, E. T. (Chicago 1972). Greece in the Bronze Age.
*Wheler, G. (London 1682). A Journey into Greece.
*Wiseman, J. R. (Göteborg 1978). The Land of the Ancient Corinthians. (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 50).
*Wiseman, J. R. (diss. University of Chicago 1966). Corinthian Trans-Isthmian Walls and the Defense of the Peloponnesos.

Primary sources

*Zosimus, ''Historia nova'' 1.29 (253-260 CE), 5.6 (396 CE).
*Procopius, ''De aedificiis'' 4.2.27-28 (548-560 CE).
*IG IV.204 (548-560 BCE).
*G. Sphrantzes, ''Chronicon minus'' (p. 4, Grecu) (1415 CE), (p. 16, Grecu) (1423 CE), (p. 50, Grecu) (1431 CE), (p. 52, Grecu) (1435 CE), (p. 66, Grecu) (1444 CE), (p. 128, ed. Grecu) (1462).
*Laonikos Chalkokondyles (p. 183-184, ed. Bonn) (1415 CE), (p. 319-320, ed. Bonn) (1443 CE), (p. 70, Grecu) (1446), (p. 345-346, ed. Bonn) (1446 CE), (p. 443, ed. Bonn) (1458).
*Short Chronicle 35 (p. 286, Schreiner, I) (1415 CE), 33 (p. 252, Schreiner, I) (1446 CE).
*Manuel II, The Letters of Manuel Palaeologus (p. 68, Dennis) (1415–1416 CE).
*Mazaris, Descent into Hades (p. 80-82, Buffalo (1415 CE).
*Cyriacus of Ancona, Cyriacus of Ancona and Athens (p. 168, Bodnar) (1436 CE).
*Pythian Oracle (p. 166-167, Bodnar) (1431–1446 CE).
*Pseudo-Phrantzes, ''Chronicum maius'' (p. 235, ed. Bonn) (1452 CE).
*Plutarch, Lives Agis and Cleomenes 20.1-21.4 (223 BCE), Aratus 43.1-44.4 (223 BCE).
*Polybius 2.52.1-53.6 (223 BCE).
*Diodorus Siculus 15.68.1-5 (369/368 BCE), 19.53.1-53.4 (316 BCE), 19.63.1-64.4 (315 BCE).
*Xenophon, ''Hellenica'' 6.5.49-52 (370 BCE), 7.1.15-22 (369 BCE).
*Herodotus 7.138-139 (480 BCE), 8.71-72 (480 BCE), 9.7-8 (480 BCE).

See also

* Diolkos

External links

*
Excavations on the Hexamilion, by the Ohio State University

{{Authority control

Medieval Corinthia
Buildings and structures completed in the 5th century
Byzantine fortifications in Greece
Walls
Ancient defensive walls in Greece
Byzantine–Ottoman wars
Buildings and structures in Corinthia
5th-century fortifications
Fortification lines