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Herculaneum (;
Neapolitan Neapolitan means of or pertaining to Naples, a city in Italy; or to: Geography and history * Province of Naples, a province in the Campania region of southern Italy that includes the city * Duchy of Naples, in existence during the Early and Hig ...
and it, Ercolano) was an ancient town, located in the modern-day ''
comune The (; plural: ) is a local administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality. It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions ('' regioni'') and provinces (''province''). The can also ...
'' of
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bu ...
,
Campania (man), it, Campana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , demog ...
, Italy. Herculaneum was buried under volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of ...
in AD 79. Like the nearby city of
Pompeii Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''comune'' of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was burie ...
, Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities to be preserved nearly intact, as the ash that blanketed the town protected it against looting and elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first, and the only discovered buried Vesuvian city (in 1709) for a long time. Pompeii was revealed only in 1748 and identified in 1763. Unlike Pompeii, the mainly
pyroclastic material Pyroclastic rocks (derived from the el, πῦρ, links=no, meaning fire; and , meaning broken) are clastic rocks composed of rock fragments produced and ejected by explosive volcanic eruptions. The individual rock fragments are known as pyrocl ...
that covered Herculaneum carbonized and preserved more wood in objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as food and
papyrus Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, '' Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'') can also refer to ...
. According to the traditional tale, the city was rediscovered by chance in 1709, during the drilling of a well. Remnants of the city, however, were already found during earlier earthworks. In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and stole artifacts. Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly since. Only a fraction of the ancient site has been excavated as of today. Budget restrictions shifted the focus to preserving the already-excavated portions of the city rather than ungrounding more sections. Although smaller than Pompeii with a population of circa 5,000, Herculaneum was a wealthier town. Herculaneum was a popular seaside retreat for the Roman elite, as reflected by the extraordinary density of luxurious houses featuring lavish use of coloured
marble Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Marble is typically not foliated (layered), although there are exceptions. In geology, the term ''marble'' refers to metamorphose ...
cladding. Famous buildings of the ancient city include the
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri ( it, Villa dei Papiri, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named afte ...
and the so-called "boat houses", where the skeletal remains of at least 300 people were found.


History of Herculaneum

Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that the Greek hero
Heracles Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptiv ...
(''
Hercules Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The Romans adapted the ...
'' in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
) founded the city. However, according to
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called " Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could s ...
, the
Oscans The Osci (also called Oscans, Opici, Opsci, Obsci, Opicans) were an Italic people of Campania and Latium adiectum before and during Roman times. They spoke the Oscan language, also spoken by the Samnites of Southern Italy. Although the language ...
founded the first settlement. The Etruscans took control of the area, and were later overthrown by the Greeks. The Greeks named the town ''Heraklion'' and used it as a trading post because of its proximity to the
Gulf of Naples The Gulf of Naples (), also called the Bay of Naples, is a roughly 15-kilometer-wide (9.3 mi) gulf located along the south-western coast of Italy ( province of Naples, Campania region). It opens to the west into the Mediterranean Sea. I ...
. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under the domination of the
Samnites The Samnites () were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium, which is located in modern inland Abruzzo, Molise, and Campania in south-central Italy. An Oscan-speaking people, who may have originated as an offshoot of the Sabines, they f ...
until it became a Roman ''municipium'' in 89 BC, when, having participated in the Social War ("War of The Allies" against Rome), it was defeated by
Titus Didius Titus Didius (also spelled Deidius in ancient times) was a politician and general of the Roman Republic. In 98 BC he became the first member of his family to be consul. He is credited with the restoration of the Villa Publica,Makin, Ena. "The ...
, a legate of
Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Sulla had t ...
. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried Herculaneum under approximately of ash. It lay hidden and largely intact until discoveries from wells and tunnels became gradually more widely known, notably following the Prince d'Elbeuf's explorations in the early 18th century. Excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bu ...
and
Portici Portici (; ) is a town and ''comune'' of the Metropolitan City of Naples in Italy. It is the site of the Portici Royal Palace. Geography Portici lies at the foot of Mount Vesuvius on the Bay of Naples, about southeast of Naples itself. There i ...
lie above Herculaneum. Ercolano was called
Resina Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bui ...
until 1969 when the modern name was adopted in honour of the old city.


Eruption of 79 AD

The course and timeline of the eruption can be reconstructed based on archaeological excavations and two letters from Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
. At around 1:00 pm on the first day of eruption, Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material thousands of metres into the sky. When it reached a height of , the top of the column flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as a stone pine tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of
Pompeii Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''comune'' of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was burie ...
and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage; nevertheless, the ash prompted most inhabitants to flee. At 1:00 am the next day, the eruptive column, which had risen into the
stratosphere The stratosphere () is the second layer of the atmosphere of the Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is an atmospheric layer composed of stratified temperature layers, with the warm layers of air h ...
, collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first
pyroclastic surge A pyroclastic surge is a fluidised mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments that is ejected during some volcanic eruptions. It is similar to a pyroclastic flow but it has a lower density or contains a much higher ratio of gas to rock, which makes ...
, formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, flowed down the mountain and through the mostly-evacuated town of Herculaneum at . A succession of six flows and surges buried the city's buildings to approximately 20 m depth, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. However, other areas were damaged significantly, knocking down walls, tearing away columns and other large objects; a marble statue of
Marcus Nonius Balbus The gens Nonia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Its members first appear in history toward the end of the Republic. The first of the Nonii to obtain the consulship was Lucius Nonius Asprenas in 36 BC. From then until the end of the fo ...
near the baths was blown 15m away and a carbonised skeleton was found lifted 2.5m above ground level in the garden of the House of the Relief of Telephus. The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after 17 October. Support for an October/November eruption has long been known in several respects: buried people in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles and could not have been minted before the second week of September. Multidisciplinary research on the lethal effects of the pyroclastic surges in the Vesuvius area has shown that, in the vicinity of Pompeii and Herculaneum, intense heat was the main cause of the death of people who had previously been thought to have died by ash suffocation. Exposure to ≥250 °C (480 °F) had likely killed residents within 10 km, including those sheltering in buildings.


Archaeology

Prince d'
Elbeuf Elbeuf () is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in northern France. Geography A light industrial town situated by the banks of the Seine some south of Rouen at the junction of the D7, D321 and the D313 roads. ...
began constructing a villa in neighbouring Granatello, and to furnish it, he grew intrigued in local tales of wells containing antique sculptures and artworks. In 1709, he acquired the site of a recently-dug well and tunnelled out from its bottom in search of sculptures. The tunnel reached what would be later identified as a theatre, where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Among the earliest sculptures discovered were two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women, currently housed in the
Skulpturensammlung The Skulpturensammlung (English: Sculpture Collection) is part of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (Dresden State Art Collections). It is located in the Albertinum in Dresden. The collection of the Dresden Skulpturensammlung ranges in age ...
in Dresden. The excavation ceased in 1711 out of concern about the stability of the structures above. Major excavations resumed in 1738. With the engineer from Zaragoza Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre, Giovanni Antonio Medrano began the excavations of Herculaneum, giving rise to a new type of activity under the patronage of
Charles III of Spain it, Carlo Sebastiano di Borbone e Farnese , house = Bourbon-Anjou , father = Philip V of Spain , mother = Elisabeth Farnese , birth_date = 20 January 1716 , birth_place = Royal Alcazar of Madrid, Spain , death_da ...
, who had recently begun building his nearby palace in Portici. He appointed the Spanish military engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre to supervise the extensive new project. The publication of " Le Antichità di Ercolano" ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") had a striking influence on nascent European
Neoclassicism Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism ...
; by the end of the 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on fashionable furnishings, including decorative wall-paintings, tripod tables, perfume burners, and teacups. Nonetheless, excavation ceased once again in 1762 as a result of Winckelmann's harsh criticism of the treasure-hunting techniques. The discovery of neighbouring Pompeii, substantially simpler to excavate due to a smaller layer of material covering the site (4m as compared to 20m at Herculaneum), diverted attention and effort. King
Francis I Francis I or Francis the First may refer to: * Francesco I Gonzaga (1366–1407) * Francis I, Duke of Brittany (1414–1450), reigned 1442–1450 * Francis I of France (1494–1547), King of France, reigned 1515–1547 * Francis I, Duke of Saxe-Lau ...
ordered land acquisitions and promoted renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the newly formed
Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy ( it, Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed King of Italy, until 1946, when civil discontent led to ...
, extending excavations eastwards till 1875. From 1927 until 1942, Amedeo Maiuri conducted a new campaign, sponsored by
Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until Fall of the Fascist re ...
's regime, which unearthed approximately four hectares today part of the archaeological park. Hundreds of skeletons were found in the so-called "boat houses", by the ancient shoreline, between 1980–1981.
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri ( it, Villa dei Papiri, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named afte ...
, the northwest baths, the House of the Dionysian Reliefs and a large collapsed monument were brought to light between 1996 to 1999. However, the area was left in a chaotic state until major conservation interventions from 2000 through 2007. Many public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are yet to be excavated.


Site

The classical street layout separates the city into blocks (''
insulae The Latin word ''insula'' (literally meaning "island", plural ''insulae'') was used in Roman cities to mean either a city block in a city plan, i.e. a building area surrounded by four streets, or, later, a type of apartment building that occup ...
''), defined by the intersection of the east-west (cardi) and north-south (decumani) streets. Hence Insula II – Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as the "Suburban District" (SD). Individual buildings have their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). The Forum, temples, theatre, numerous houses and necropolises are still buried in Herculaneum. The settlement was encircled by walls between 2 and 3 metres thick, dated to the 2nd century BC and constructed primarily of large pebbles, with the exception of the coastal section made of
opus reticulatum ''Opus reticulatum'' (also known as reticulate work) is a facing used for concrete walls in Roman architecture from about the first century BCE to the early first century CE. Facings are a type of polygonal masonry used to apply a smooth finish to ...
. As in Pompeii, following the Social War, the walls lost their protective purpose and were integrated into adjacent structures, such as the House of Inn. A single main drain was collecting water from the Forum and from house impluviums, latrines, and kitchens along cardo III. Other drains emptied directly into the street, except latrines equipped with a cesspit. For water supply, the city was directly connected to the Serino aqueduct, built in the Augustan age, which brought water to houses through a series of lead pipes under the roads, regulated by valves; eight and ten metres wells had been used previously. Due to bradyseism, which affects the whole Vesuvius region, portions of the historic city of Herculaneum today lie as much as 4 metres below sea level.


The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)

The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage.


The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)

The second house in insula II takes its name from a lost fresco of Argus and Io that once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle. This structure was likely one of Herculaneum's finest villas. It was the first time that a second story had been unearthed in such detail when the house was discovered in the late 1820s. The excavation uncovered a balcony on the second level overlooking Cardo III, as well as wooden shelving and cupboards now unfortunately lost.


The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)

North of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius. Although it has only been partially uncovered, it looks to have been a vast structure. Its name derives from a statue of a Cupid, once part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin.


The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)

The house consists of two adjoined structures with a mix of plain, simple spaces and finely-decorated rooms. The atrium is covered and lacks the usual impluvium. It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and
opus sectile ''Opus sectile'' is a form of pietra dura popularized in the ancient and medieval Roman world where materials were cut and inlaid into walls and floors to make a picture or pattern. Common materials were marble, mother of pearl, and glass. The ...
. A highly adorned biclinium with frescoes in the fourth style and a spacious triclinium originally marble-floored are found off the atrium. Several further rooms, including the apsed alcove after which the house is named, are accessible via a corridor receiving daylight from a small courtyard.


College of the Augustales

Temple of the augustales or priests of the
Imperial cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may ...
.


Central Thermae

The Central Thermae (bathhouses) were built around the 1st century AD. Bathhouses were very popular at the time, especially in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Per common practice, there were separate bathing areas for men and women. The Thermae also served as a prominent cultural hub home to several works of art.


Villa of the Papyri

The most famous among Herculaneum's luxurious villas,
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri ( it, Villa dei Papiri, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named afte ...
was first identified as the magnificent seafront retreat belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
's father-in-law; However, artefacts found at the site closely resemble standardised assortment and cannot conclusively identify the villa's owner. The villa stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literary patron of poets and philosophers, built there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact. Between 1752 and 1754, a number of blackened, unreadable papyrus scrolls were serendipitously recovered from the Villa of the Papyri by workmen. These scrolls became known as the Herculaneum papyri or scrolls, the majority of which are today stored at the National Library, Naples. Although badly carbonized, a number of scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened rolls using X-rays. The same techniques could be applied to the rolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, eliminating the risk of potential damage from unrolling. Later CT scan revealed the scrolls' fibres structure, sand, and other debris trapped in the scrolls. These findings help a safer unrolling. However, the text remains illegible. Two of the rolls stored at the French National Academy in Paris have been extensively examined by X-ray in summer 2009. However, the text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks, essentially invisible to the X-ray scans. Similar later attempts all failed. In 2015, a team of scientists managed to increase the contrast between the carbon ink and the carbon-based papyrus using X-ray Phase Contrast Tomography, and read Greek words along the outer papyrus, marking "a revolution for papyrologists". While researchers can identify certain words on the scrolls, there is still a long way to go before the stories on the scrolls are unlocked.


Boathouses and the Shore

In 1980–82, excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on the ancient beach (just in front the city walls) and in the first six so-called "boat sheds". Long before this finding, it was believed that the majority of the town's inhabitants had managed to flee, as only a few skeletons had been unearthed during all of the excavations. However, this startling discovery led to a shift in perspective. The last inhabitants waiting for rescue from the sea were probably killed instantly by the intense heat of the pyroclastic flow, despite being sheltered from direct impact. A study of victims' postures and the effects on their skeletons seemed to indicate that the first surge caused instant death as a result of
fulminant shock Fulminant () is a medical descriptor for any event or process that occurs suddenly and escalates quickly, and is intense and severe to the point of lethality, i.e., it has an explosion, explosive character. The word comes from Latin ''fulmināre'' ...
due to a temperature of about . Extreme heat caused hands and feet to contract and perhaps fractured bones and teeth. After a period of finds mismanagement and deterioration skeletons further excavations in the 1990s uncovered a total of 296 skeletons huddled in 9 of the 12 stone vaults facing the sea and on the beach. While the town was almost completely evacuated, these people found themesleves trapped. The "Ring Lady" (see image), named for the rings on her fingers, was discovered there in 1982. Eventually, 340 bodies were identified in this area. Analyses of the skeletons suggest it was mainly men who died on the beach, while women and children sheltered and died in the boat houses. Recent chemical analyses of the remains provided further insights into the health and nutrition of Herculaneum's population. Casts of skeletons were also produced to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved due to the rapid vaporisation and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 °C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed in chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. Of exceptional interest is the recent analysis of one of the skeletons (n. 26) discovered in 1982 on the beach next to a boat (on display in the boat pavilion). The remains belong to a military officer (with an elaborate dagger and belt), who was perhaps involved in a rescue mission. New digs beginning in 2021 will seek to uncover the ancient beach's western side, where additional skeletons may be discovered.


Herculaneum versus Pompeii

Despite the extensive knowledge over Herculaneum, the city was long eclipsed by the better-known Pompeii. Although the cities are located a mere 13 km apart, Pompeii is often more popular in education systems than Herculaneum. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, whereas Pompeii was not discovered until 39 years later, in 1748. After Pompeii was discovered, Russian painter
Karl Bryullov Karl Pavlovich Bryullov (russian: Карл Па́влович Брюлло́в; 12 December 1799 – 11 June 1852), original name Charles Bruleau, also transliterated Briullov and Briuloff, and referred to by his friends as "Karl the Great", was a ...
created an oil painting titled ''
The Last Day of Pompeii ''The Last Day of Pompeii'' is a large history painting by Karl Bryullov produced in 1830–1833 on the subject of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. It is notable for its positioning between Neoclassicism, the predominant style in Russia a ...
'' in 1830–1833, which inspired
Edward Bulwer-Lytton Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton, PC (25 May 180318 January 1873) was an English writer and politician. He served as a Whig member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841 and a Conservative from 1851 to 1866. He was Secre ...
to write his book '' The Last Days of Pompeii'' in 1834, both of which helped boost Pompeii's popularity. Pompeii's discovery caused excavations in Herculaneum to stop until the 1920s. This was likely because of the 20-meter-thick pyroclastic layer covering Herculaneum, while Pompeii was covered by "only" 4 meters of thinner, significantly easier to excavate ash. Harsh criticisms from
Johann Joachim Winckelmann Johann Joachim Winckelmann (; ; 9 December 17178 June 1768) was a German art historian and archaeologist. He was a pioneering Hellenist who first articulated the differences between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art. "The prophet and foundin ...
also influenced Herculaneum's excavations. Winckelmann, a well-respected traveler of the time, was frustrated by the difficulty in accessing findings and materials at Herculaneum. He did not like that the importance of cultural tourism was being ignored. He also strongly criticized the fact that excavated pieces were either taken to the King's palace, or destroyed, with no other options in place. He spoke passionately about the importance of archaeological context, and how the destruction of artifacts to prevent sales to foreigners could disturb or even destroy that context. Winckelmann worked tirelessly and successfully to end excavations in Herculaneum. Winckelmann's success is at least partially attributed to the young age of
Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies Ferdinand I (12 January 1751 – 4 January 1825) was the King of the Two Sicilies from 1816, after his restoration following victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Before that he had been, since 1759, Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples and Ferdinand I ...
. Ferdinand I ascended when his father took the throne elsewhere as
Charles III of Spain it, Carlo Sebastiano di Borbone e Farnese , house = Bourbon-Anjou , father = Philip V of Spain , mother = Elisabeth Farnese , birth_date = 20 January 1716 , birth_place = Royal Alcazar of Madrid, Spain , death_da ...
, and the young king was unprepared to handle harsh public discourse. In an effort to deflect Winckelmann's criticism, Ferdinand slowed the excavations at Herculaneum. At the same time Herculaneum's excavations were coming to a halt, Pompeii's excavations were finally starting to pick up. Originally there had been a lack of artifacts due to the site being easier to excavate; this caused the site to have already been touched by looters who took many valuable artifacts. However, there was a major breakthrough when excavations finally struck the theatre of Pompeii. Due to the nature of Pompeii being closer to the surface, policies were adopted to keep the site open to visitors, effectively pleasing Winckelmann. With Pompeii's easily accessible 'open-air' excavations, it became an interesting tourist attraction that many people began to visit. On the other hand, Herculaneum had deep tunnels that had to be traversed by torchlight and was therefore a much less interesting attraction that was easily dismissed from people's minds.


Issues of conservation

The volcanic ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1,600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was exacerbated by earlier excavation practices, which generally focused on valuable artefacts rather than preserving the archeological value of the site. Preservation of the skeletal remains became a top priority only in the early 1980s, under the direction of Dr
Sara C. Bisel Dr. Sara C. Bisel (1932–1996) was a physical anthropologist and classical archaeologist who played a prominent role in early scientific research at Herculaneum, a Mediterranean coastal town destroyed by the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius ...
. Intensive tourism, vandalism, substandard management, and political ineptitude all contributed to the deterioration of numerous sites and buildings. Numerous building foundations have been weakened by water damage caused by modern
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bu ...
. Reconstruction initiatives have often proved counterproductive. However, recent conservation efforts have had greater success. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued to direct all funding to conservation programs. A large number of artifacts from Herculaneum are preserved in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum The National Archaeological Museum of Naples ( it, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, italic=no, sometimes abbreviated to MANN) is an important Italian archaeological museum, particularly for ancient Roman remains. Its collection includes wo ...
.


Modern conservation

After years of mismanagement, Herculaneum fell into a dire state. However, in 2001, the
Packard Humanities Institute The Packard Humanities Institute (PHI) is a non-profit foundation, established in 1987, and located in Los Altos, California, which funds projects in a wide range of conservation concerns in the fields of archaeology, music, film preservation, a ...
began the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a private–public partnership initially set to provide financial aid to local authorities addressing critical issues. The program eventually shifted to include providing skilled expert support and formulating a long-term plan for the site. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has been involved in multiple pilot conservation projects and has partnered with the
British School at Rome The British School at Rome (BSR) is an interdisciplinary research centre supporting the arts, humanities and architecture. History The British School at Rome (BSR) was established in 1901 and granted a UK Royal Charter in 1912. Its mission is " ...
for training students to maintain the site. One of the pilot projects started by the Conservation Project was on the tablinum that had been conserved by Maiuri's team in 1938. Over time water had managed to seep into the wall causing the paint to attach to the previously applied wax and curl away from the wall, stripping it of its color. However, after working in tandem with the
Getty Museum The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in Los Angeles, California housed on two campuses: the Getty Center and Getty Villa. The Getty Center is located in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles and ...
, conservators have managed to create a technique where a series of solvents can be used to remove some of the wax and lessen the amount of buildup on the walls so that the paint no longer chips off of the walls.


UNESCO conservation

Herculaneum is listed as UNESCO
World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
since 1997. UNESCO was drawn in by Herculaneum's public architecture. The spacious palaestra, two public baths, the College of the Priests of Augustus, and a standard theatre. Herculaneum also had a seafront display and urban districts that had a very high level of preservation as well as great conservation of upper floors, all due to the pyroclastic material that had so thoroughly covered the city. With all of this impressive preservation that Herculaneum had, the site met UNESCO's criteria III, IV, and V; allowing the site to become a UNESCO-protected site. Herculaneum and the neighboring city of Pompeii, as well as the surrounding villas, are some of the most well-preserved Roman city ruins that have been documented at this time. UNESCO references how Herculaneum is a great example of both Roman urban and suburban settlements. UNESCO also praises how Herculaneum's urban, architectural, decorative, and traces of ancient daily life have helped archeologists piece together a timeline of Roman life, from 1st century BC to 1st century AD. The intense rapidness of the destruction of the city, along with the thick layers of pyroclastic material that covered the area, created nearly perfect conditions for most everything to be preserved. However, this way of preservation has caused issues with the later excavations of the city. There is a constant risk of the uncovered remains starting to decay. The structures being excavated are centuries old, and some are beginning to rot away and cave-in in certain places. UNESCO implemented several measures to protect the site. All excavations in and around the site must be approved by the World Heritage authorities. UNESCO had Law No. 1089 passed for both Pompeii and Herculaneum in 1939 to protects all things with artistic and historical interest in the area. In 2004, Legislative Decree No. 42 was passed to extend Law No. 1089 to all areas surrounding Pompeii and Herculaneum. Not only does Herculaneum and its surrounding areas have preservation issues, but Herculaneum itself has many specific developmental restrictions, especially surrounding Mount Vesuvius. These restrictions limit what excavations can be done at the site, and they help to ensure the safety of the ancient city, which currently lies mostly under a modern town in the area. Not only does UNESCO have its own laws and restrictions, but they also have many connections with the Vesuvius National Park and with
Man and the Biosphere Programme Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an intergovernmental scientific program, launched in 1971 by UNESCO, that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments. MAB's work engag ...
. With the Vesuvius National Park's ability to provide a broad setting of protection, and MAB Biosphere's designative abilities to provide the framework for further coordination, they both work together with UNESCO to protect the site to the best of their abilities. UNESCO on its own is also constantly working on reconstruction efforts, specifically those surrounding the structures that are currently already unearthed. While the conservation efforts are still ongoing, Herculaneum has gone from one of the worst preserved UNESCO sites at risk of being put on the endangered list to becoming "a textbook case of successful archeological conservation".


Photos

File:Ercolano 2003.jpg, House Number 22 is noted for this outstanding summer
triclinium A ''triclinium'' (plural: ''triclinia'') is a formal dining room in a Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek ()—from (), "three", and (), a sort of couch or rather chaise longue. Each couch was sized to accommodate a diner who ...
with a
nymphaeum A ''nymphaeum'' or ''nymphaion'' ( grc, νυμφαῖον), in ancient Greece and Rome, was a monument consecrated to the nymphs, especially those of springs. These monuments were originally natural grottoes, which tradition assigned as habit ...
decorated with coloured mosaics. File:Neptune Amphitrite mosaic Herculaneum.jpg, Herculaneum, Neptune and Salacia, wall mosaic in House Number 22 File:Roman Road Surface at Herculaneum.jpg, Street paving stones in Herculaneum File:Water Pipe In Herculaneum.jpg, Residential water pipe made of lead in Herculaneum File:Herculaneum Wall 1.Style.jpg, Wall paintings in the first style File:Herculaneum Floor.jpg, Inlaid marble floor File:Marcus-Nonius-Balbus-The-Elder-Resina-1908-Barker-Herculaneum.jpg,
Marcus Nonius Balbus The gens Nonia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Its members first appear in history toward the end of the Republic. The first of the Nonii to obtain the consulship was Lucius Nonius Asprenas in 36 BC. From then until the end of the fo ...
, found in dwellings of Resina/Herculaneum. File:Posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from Herculaneum, Italy.jpg, Most likely a posthumous painted portrait of
Cleopatra VII Cleopatra VII Philopator ( grc-gre, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ}, "Cleopatra the father-beloved"; 69 BC10 August 30 BC) was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and its last active ruler.She was also a ...
of Ptolemaic Egypt with
red hair Red hair (also known as orange hair and ginger hair) is a hair color found in one to two percent of the human population, appearing with greater frequency (two to six percent) among people of Northern or Northwestern European ancestry and ...
and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal
diadem A diadem is a type of crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of royalty. Overview The word derives from the Greek διάδημα ''diádēma'', "band" or "fillet", from διαδέω ''diadéō'', " ...
and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, mid-1st century AD File:Runners MAN Napoli Inv5626-7 n02.jpg,
Bronze sculptures Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply "a bronze". It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs, and small statuettes and figurines, as well as bronze elements ...
of runners from the
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri ( it, Villa dei Papiri, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named afte ...
at Herculaneum, now in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum The National Archaeological Museum of Naples ( it, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, italic=no, sometimes abbreviated to MANN) is an important Italian archaeological museum, particularly for ancient Roman remains. Its collection includes wo ...


Documentaries

* A 1987 ''National Geographic'' special, '' In the Shadow of Vesuvius'', explored the sites of
Pompeii Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''comune'' of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was burie ...
and Herculaneum, interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius. * The 2002 documentary "Herculaneum. An unlucky escape" is based on research of Pier Paolo Petrone, Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and Mario Pagano. Co-production of DocLab Rome, Discovery Channel USA, France 3 – Taxi Brousse, Spiegel TV, Mediatred, 52'. * A 2004 documentary "Pompeii and the 79 AD eruption". TBS Channel Tokyo Broadcasting System, 120'. * An hour-long drama produced for the BBC entitled '' Pompeii: The Last Day'' portrays several characters (with historically attested names but fictional stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the
Bay of Naples A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. A large bay is usually called a gulf, sea, sound, or bight. A cove is a small, circular bay with a na ...
, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two
gladiator A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...
s, and
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
Pompeii Live
Channel 5, 28 June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum *
Marcellino de Baggis Marcellino is both a given name and a surname. Notable people with the name include: * Marcellino de Baggis (1971–2011), Italian cinematographer and director * Marcellino da Civezza (born 1822), Italian Franciscan author * Marcellino Gavilán (19 ...
' 2007 documentary "Herculaneum: Diaries of Darkness and Light", Onionskin productions * The 2007 documentary "Troja ist überall: Auferstehung am Vesuv", Spiegel TV, 43'29 * "Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered" is a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum. * "Out of the Ashes: Recovering the Lost Library of Herculaneum" is a KBYU-TV documentary that traces the history of the Herculaneum papyri from the time of the eruption to their discovery in 1752 to modern developments that impact their study. * "The Other Pompeii: Life and Death in Herculaneum" is a documentary presented by
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill Andrew Frederic Wallace-Hadrill, (born 29 July 1951) is a British ancient historian, classical archaeologist, and academic. He is Professor of Roman Studies and Director of Research in the Faculty of Classics at the University of Cambridge. He ...
, director of Herculaneum Conservation Project. * "Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time"Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time
/ref> is a 2013 BBC One drama documentary presented by Dr.
Margaret Mountford Margaret Rose Mountford (''née'' Swale, born 24 November 1951) is a Northern Irish lawyer, businesswoman and television personality best known for her role in ''The Apprentice''. Biography Mountford is originally from Holywood in County Down, ...
. * "Pompeii: The New Revelations" was broadcast on UK TV channel 5 in 2021. * "Unearthed: Vesuvius' Secret Victim." Documents the city of Herculaneum and the lives of its people. Revealed that over 1,000 people of Herculaneum's 5,000 citizens had survived the eruption and were resettled in
Naples Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adm ...
and
Cumae Cumae ( grc, Κύμη, (Kumē) or or ; it, Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC and soon becoming one of the strongest colonies. It later became a rich Ro ...
.


Notes


Further reading

* Brennan, B. 2018.''Herculaneum A Roman Town Reborn.'' Sydney: Ancient History Seminars. * Brennan, B. 2012. ''Herculaneum A Sourcebook.'' Sydney: Ancient History Seminars. * Capasso, L. 2001. ''I fuggiaschi di Ercolano. Paleobiologia delle vittime dell' eruzione vesuviana del 79 d.C.'' Roma: L'Erma di Bretschneider * Daehner, J., ed. 2007. ''The Herculaneum Women: History, Context, Identities.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. * De Carolis, E., and G. Patricelli. 2003. ''Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. * Deiss, J. J. 1995. ''The Town of Hercules: A Buried Treasure Trove.'' Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. * Lazer, E. 2009. ''Resurrecting Pompeii.'' London: Routledge. * Pace, S. 2000. ''Herculaneum and European Culture Between the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.'' Naples, Italy: Electa. * Pagano, M. 2000. ''Herculaneum: A Reasoned Archaeological Itinerary.'' Translated by A. Pesce. Naples, Italy: T&M. * Pagano, M., and A. Balasco. 2000. ''The Ancient Theatre of Herculaneum.'' Translated by C. Fordham. Naples, Italy: Electa. * Pirozzi, M. E. A. 2000. ''Herculaneum: The Excavations, Local History and Surroundings.'' Naples, Italy : Electa. * Scarth, A. 2009. ''Vesuvius: A Biography.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Wallace-Hadrill, A. 2011. "The Monumental Centre of Herculaneum: In Search of the Identities of the Public Buildings." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 24:121–160.


References

* National Geographic, Vol 162, No. 6. ''Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead,'' (December, 1982) * National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. ''The Dead Do Tell Tales,'' (May, 1984) * Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No. 10. ''The Bone Lady'' (October, 1984) * The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No. 2. ''An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at Herculaneum,'' (April, 1983) * Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No. 2. ''Bone Lady Reconstructs People at Herculaneum,'' Winter, 1985 * ''In the Shadow of Vesuvius'' National Geographic Special, (11 February 1987) * ''30 years of National Geographic Special,'' (25 January 1995) * Petrone P.P., Fedele F. (a cura di), 2002. ''Vesuvio 79 A.D. Vita e morte ad Ercolano,'' Fridericiana Editrice Universitaria, Napoli. * Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Gangemi, Roma, 2008. * National Geographic, Vol 212, No. 3. ''Vesuvius. Asleep for Now,'' (September, 2006) http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/vesuvius/vesuvius-text


Resources

*
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate ...
's letters on the catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. to the Roman historian
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
from University of Arizona
Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16 and 6.20 to Cornelius Tacitus
and in
Project Gutenberg Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital libr ...

Letter LXV – To Tacitus


External links


The local archaeological authorities – Official website

Herculaneum Conservation Project – Official website

AD 79: Year of Destruction
*
62 Pompeii earthquake On 5 February AD 62, an earthquake of an estimated magnitude of between 5 and 6 and a maximum intensity of IX or X on the Mercalli scale struck the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, severely damaging them. The earthquake may have been a precurso ...
*
Herculaneum papyri The Herculaneum papyri are more than 1,800 papyri found in the Herculaneum Villa of the Papyri, in the 18th century, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. The papyri, containing a number of Greek philosophical texts, come fr ...

Blogging Pompeii

The Friends of Herculaneum Society


* ttp://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=43 Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls
Herculaneum
by Iain Dickson, 'Melvadius Macrinus Cugerni'
Herculaneum Uncovered
Documentary produced by the PBS Series
Secrets of the Dead ''Secrets of the Dead'', produced by WNET 13 New York, is an ongoing PBS television series which began in 2000. The show generally follows an investigator or team of investigators exploring what modern science can tell us about some of the great ...
*
Romano-Campanian Wall-Painting (English, Italian, Spanish and French introduction)

"Herculaneum Uncovered – A conversation with Andrew Wallace-Hadrill"
''Ideas Roadshow'', 2013 * {{Authority control Roman towns and cities in Italy Roman sites of Campania Destroyed cities Natural disaster ghost towns Archaeological parks Archaeological sites in Campania Coastal towns in Campania Museums of ancient Rome in Italy National museums of Italy Former populated places in Italy Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC 1st-millennium BC establishments in Italy Ercolano Heracles Human remains (archaeological) Mount Vesuvius 1738 archaeological discoveries World Heritage Sites in Italy 79 disestablishments Populated places disestablished in the 1st century