The Han River or Hangang () is a major river in

South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...

and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok (Yalu), Tuman (Tumen), and Nakdong rivers. The river begins as two smaller rivers in the eastern mountains of the Korean peninsula, which then converge near

Seoul Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the Capital city, capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the North Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea ...

, the capital of the country. The Hangang River and its surrounding area have played an important role in Korean history. The

Three Kingdoms of Korea Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...

strove to take control of this land, where the river was used as a

trade route A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water. Allowing goods to reach distant markets, a sing ...

to China (via the Yellow Sea). The river is no longer actively used for navigation, because its

estuary An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environm ...

is located at the borders of the two Koreas, barred for entrance by any civilian. The river serves as a water source for over 12 million South Koreans. In July 2000, the

United States military The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is ...

admitted to having dumped

formaldehyde Formaldehyde ( , ) ( systematic name methanal) is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula and structure . The pure compound is a pungent, colourless gas that polymerises spontaneously into paraformaldehyde (refer to section ...

in the sewer system connected to the river, causing protests. The lower stretches of the Hangang River are lined with pedestrian walkways, bicycle paths, public parks and restaurants, particularly in Seoul. In a 2011 survey conducted by Seoul Development Institute of 800 residents and 103 urban planning and architectural experts, 51.3 percent of residents and 68.9 percent of experts voted the river the second most scenic location in the city, following Mount Namsan in the top spot.

Geography

The Hangang is formed by the confluence of the

Namhan River Namhan River (Namhan-gang, South Han River) is a major river of South Korea, the 2nd-longest. It is a tributary of the Han River. It is famous for clean and clear water, especially in its upper reaches and tributaries, and serves as a source of ...

(South Hangang River), which originates in Mount Daedeoksan, and the Bukhan River (North Hangang River), which originates on the slopes of Kumgangsan Mountain in

North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu (Amnok) and T ...

. The River flows through

and then merges with the Imjingang River (or Rimjingang River) shortly before it flows into the

Yellow Sea The Yellow Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean located between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula, and can be considered the northwestern part of the East China Sea. It is one of four seas named after common colour ter ...

. The two major branches of the river, the Namhangang River and the Bukhangang River, come together at Yangpyeong, Gyeonggi province, at which point it is referred to as the Hangang River. It then passes through Seoul and continues on to the

. Broad tidal flats can be found at the mouth of the Hangang River, where it meets the sea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone that divides South and North Korea. The total length of the Hangang River is approximately . Although it is not a long river, the lower Hangang is remarkably broad for such a relatively short river. Within

city limits, the river is more than wide. Prior to the construction of a number of major dams, the river was known for its huge coefficient of river regime (ratio between the maximum and minimum amount of flow) of 1:390. (For comparison, The

Thames The River Thames ( ), known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after the R ...

and the

Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , source ...

have coefficients of 1:8 and 1:18, respectively.)

Name

The ''Namhangang'' (''Namhan'' meaning "Southern Han" and ''gang'' meaning "river") is sometimes, but not always, referred to as the "Han" in

. The term "Southern Han" is understood irrespective of which side of the border one stands. Even though "Namhan" and "Bukhan" are homophones with the acronyms ''Namhan'' (; "South Korea") and ''Bukhan'' (; "North Korea"), used commonly in South Korea, this is a mere coincidence. The

hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...

for the Hangang River is not ("Korea") but (Chinese). The reason behind this is because the meaning of the native Korean "han" (한), in this instance meaning "great" "large" "wide", was transliterated into Hanja with the character also meaning "large", thus showing the reason why the river used the word instead of . It is also easily mistaken with the use of in Seoul's older name, "漢城" where does not refer to Chinese people, but refers to the idea of Seoul being the "walled city on the Han". As a result, Koreans rarely use 漢 because 韓 and 漢 sound the same (han), but the meaning is 韓 (han, 한, "Korean"), not "Han Chinese". Hangang River has been called by different names through the course of Korean history. During the early part of the

Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...

period the river was often referred to as the Daesu (; "the Regional Waters"). The state of

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

called it the Arisu (; "The Gainful Waters").

Baekje Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder J ...

called it the Ungniha (; "Fragrant Mile River"), while the kingdom of

Silla Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms o ...

termed it the Iha (; "Muddy River").

History

The Hangang River has played a central role in Korean history from the earliest times. The kingdom of

was the first to lay claim to the Hangang River, recognizing its strategic significance as a primary waterway linking the central western region of the peninsula with the

. It was also recognized for the river's fertile alluvial banks, a relative rarity on the mountainous peninsula.

Pungnaptoseong Earthen Fortification in Pungnap-dong, Seoul () is a flat earthen wall built at the edge of the Han River in Korea. It has a circumference of 3.5 km. It is located in modern-day Pungnap-dong, Songpa-gu, Seoul. It used to be included in t ...

, located south of

, is posited as an early capital of Baekje. It was not long before the region near the mouth of the Hangang River on the Yellow Sea, around present-day Seoul, became a bone of contention between Baekje and the rising kingdom of

. During the reign of its

King Jangsu Jangsu of Goguryeo (394–491, r. 413–491) was the 20th monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was born in 394 as the eldest son of Gwanggaeto. He became the crown prince in 408, and upon his father's death ...

(r. 413-491) Goguryeo wrested the western terminus of the Hangang River from its rival Baekje. The ensuing decades would see a tug-of-war over the region until 551 when Baekje, in an alliance with

, confirmed its control over the Hangang River basin. But this alliance was not to last, and in 553 Silla broke its alliance with Baekje to seize control of the entire river as part of its bid for domination of the

peninsula A peninsula (; ) is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on a ...

. With the demise of both Baekje and Goguryeo and then the unification of the peninsula under

in 668, the Hangang River entered its long era as a "Korean river", first under the control of Unified Silla (668-918), then of the succeeding

Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...

dynasty (918-1392), and finally as part of the

Joseon dynasty Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...

(1392-1910). During the Joseon period the Han River achieved new prominence as the primary waterway of the new Korean capital of

, then called Hanyang. Within the first week of the start of the

Korean War {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Korean War , partof = the Cold War and the Korean conflict , image = Korean War Montage 2.png , image_size = 300px , caption = Clockwise from top:{ ...

the South Korean Army destroyed the Hangang Bridge in a bid to stem the advance of the invading North Korean military. In early 1951, there was a fair amount of fighting between Chinese

People's Volunteer Army The People's Volunteer Army (PVA) was the armed expeditionary forces deployed by the People's Republic of China during the Korean War. Although all units in the PVA were actually transferred from the People's Liberation Army under the order ...

troops and US-led United Nations forces in the Hangang River area surrounding

(refer to Operation Thunderbolt during the Korean War). The Hangang River now belongs largely to the

Republic of Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its ea ...

, or

, with its mouth on the

a few nautical miles from

(though some of the river's tributaries are in North Korea). During the first few decades of South Korea's existence the Hangang River became a byword for pollution, as burgeoning industry and an impoverished populace used it as a convenient spillway for industrial and urban refuse. Though it no longer plays a central role in commerce or transportation it is a prime fixture in the life of the South Korean capital and in the last decade has become the focus of government sponsored environmental efforts to clean it up and transform it into an ecological jewel of the capital. During the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, the Hangang River was the site of the Olympic rowing regatta. There have been fears, such as the 1986 Water Panic in South Korea, that North Korea could attack Seoul by releasing waters from upstream dams, creating floods downstream. In July 2000, the US military admitted to dumping 20 gallons (75.7 liters) of diluted

in the sewer system connected to the river. As the river serves as a drinking source for some 12 million South Koreans, some South Koreans launched large protests and accused the US military of ignoring South Korea's environmental regulations. Activists lobbed toy rockets—filled with water from the river—into the main US Army base. The political party

Green Party Korea Green Party Korea is a political party in South Korea. The party was established in March 2012. It is a continuation of the Korea Greens, created following initial discussions in 2011. The party was established in response to the Fukushima ...

had earlier accused the US of dumping nearly 60 gallons of the toxic chemical into the river, and said that "... if people are exposed to the chemical for a long period of time, it could cause lung cancer nd whendissolved into water, it could kill fish and other aquatic creatures." The events inspired Bong Joon-ho's acclaimed 2006 film '' The Host''. From 2009 the Lee Myung Bak administration resuscitated a project to dig a canal linking the Hangang River with the

Incheon Incheon (; ; or Inch'ŏn; literally "kind river"), formerly Jemulpo or Chemulp'o (제물포) until the period after 1910, officially the Incheon Metropolitan City (인천광역시, 仁川廣域市), is a city located in northwestern South Kore ...

. This eighteen kilometer

Ara Canal The Ara Canal or Gyeongin Ara Waterway (Hangul: ) is a canal in South Korea linking the Han River to the Yellow Sea. It extends from the Seo-gu district in Incheon to the Gangseo-gu district in Seoul. The canal was built to control flooding, ...

was completed in 2012 and now links the Han River near

Gimpo Gimpo () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. It borders Incheon, with which it shares the South Korean side of the Han River estuary, as well as Seoul and the lesser cities of Paju and Goyang. North Korea is across the Han River. The c ...

to Incheon. It can accommodate both large container and passenger vessels.

Joint Utilization Zone

On November 4, 2018, a 20-member team consisting of 10 people from

and 10 people from

began a joint inter-Korean survey which will lead to the development a Joint Utilization Zone along the Hangang River's

.Archived a
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The Zone will allow civilians to access the estuary for tourism, ecological protection and the collection of

construction aggregate Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregate ...

under the protection of militaries from both sides of the Korean border. On November 5, 2018, the councils of South Korea's Gangwon and Gyeonggi provinces, which border the DMZ, signed a “peace working agreement” at Dorasan Station in

Paju Paju () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Paju was made a city in 1997; it had previously been a county (''gun''). The city area of Paju is ,"Paju (Gyeonggi-do Province)." ''Naver Encyclopedia of Knowledge''. Naver, 2015. 4 Mar. 2016. ...

, giving local approval to the Joint Utilization Zone. The inter-Korean survey of the Han River's estuary was completed on December 9, 2018. The new map of the river's estuary, which consists of newly discovered reefs, will made public by January 25, 2019.

Tributaries of the Hangang River

Tributaries are listed in order from the mouth of the Hangang to the source. Subtributaries are listed accordingly. * Gongneungcheon (곡능천) * Najinhacheon (나진하천) * Changneungcheon (창능천) *

Anyangcheon The Anyangcheon is a river in Gyeonggi-do and Seoul, South Korea. It has its source on the slopes of Mount Gwanggyo in the city of Uiwang and flows north, through the city of Gunpo, where a major cleanup operation saw several species of birds re ...

(안양천) **

Dorimcheon The Dorimcheon is a river in Seoul, South Korea. It has its source in the valley between Gwanaksan and Samseongsan in southern Seoul and flows north, past Seoul National University. From Sillim Station to Daerim Station, it is covered by Line ...

(도림천) * Jungnangcheon (중랑천) ** Cheonggyecheon (청계천) *

Tancheon Tancheon, a tributary of Seoul's Han River, is a stream beginning in the city of Yongin in Gyeonggi-do and flowing through Seongnam and then between the districts of Songpa-gu and Gangnam-gu in Seoul before entering flowing into the Han River. ...

(탄천) ** Yangjaecheon (양재천) ** Yeosucheon (여수천) ** Bundangcheon (분당천) **

Pungdeokcheon The Pungdeokcheon, a tributary of the Tancheon, is a stream in Suji-gu in the city of Yongin, Gyeonggi-do. It joins the Tancheon from the west in Jukjeon. See also *Rivers of Korea *Geography of South Korea South Korea is located in East ...

(풍덕천) * Gyeongancheon (경안천) ** Neungwoncheon (능원천) ** Yangjicheon (양지천) ** Unhakcheon (운학천) * Bukhan River (북한강) ** Munhocheon (문호천) ** Hongcheongang River (홍천강) *** Sandaecheon (산대천) *** Deoksancheon (덕산천) **** Seongjeoncheon (성전천) *** Yasidaecheon (야시대천) ** Gapyeongcheon (가평천) ** Soyanggang River (소양강) ** Sanaecheon (사내천) *** Yongdamcheon (용담천) ** Magunaemeo (마구내머) *** Mahyeoncheon (마현천) ***

Bongocheon Bongocheon is a river of North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Rus ...

(봉오천) * Namhangang River (남한강) ** Sinnaegaeul (신내개울) *** View of Han river park

Heukcheon (흑천) ** Yongdamcheon (용담천) ** Bokhacheon (복하천) *** Jukdangcheon (죽당천) *** Pyogocheon (표고천) *** Gwanricheon (관리천) ** Yanghwacheon (양화천) ** Geumdangcheon (금당천) **

Cheongmicheon Cheongmicheon is a river of South Korea. It is a river of the Han River (Korea), Han River system. References

Rivers of South Korea {{SouthKorea-river-stub ...

(청미천) *** Gyecheon (계천) **** Ungcheon (웅천) ** Seomgang River (섬강) *** Iricheon (이리천) ** Mokmicheon (목미천) ** Hwangsancheon (환산천) ** Guryoncheon (구룡천) ** Yeongdeokcheon (영덕천) ** Daejeoncheon (대전천) ** Dalcheon (달천) *** Yodocheon (요도천) **

Donggang Donggang may refer to: Mainland China *Donggang District (东港区), in Rizhao, Shandong * Donggang, Liaoning (东港市), county-level city in Dandong, Liaoning ;Towns Written as "东港镇": * Donggang, Huilai County, in Huilai County, Guangdon ...

(동강)

Bridges over the lower Hangang

A total of 31 bridges cross the Hangang River in

Seoul National Capital Area The Seoul Capital Area (SCA), Sudogwon (, ) or Gyeonggi region (), is the metropolitan area of Seoul, Incheon, and Gyeonggi Province, located in north-west South Korea. Its population of 26 million (as of 2020) is ranked as the fifth largest ...

(

Gyeonggi Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...

. They are: ''From the west to the east'' * Ilsan Bridge; 일산대교 * Gimpo Bridge; 김포대교 * Haengju Bridge; 행주대교 * Banghwa Bridge; 방화대교 *

Magok Railway Bridge The Magok Railway Bridge crosses the Han River in South Korea as a part of the AREX of the Incheon International Airport. A truss bridge A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure of connec ...

; 마곡철교 * Gayang Bridge; 가양대교 * World Cup Bridge; 월드컵대교 * Seongsan Bridge; 성산대교 *

Yanghwa Bridge The Yanghwa Bridge (양화대교) is an eight lane bridge spanning the Han River in Seoul. The bridge connects Mapo-gu on the north side of the river to Yeongdeungpo-gu on the south side of the river. The bridge is buttressed by the eastern en ...

; 양화대교 * Dangsan Railway Bridge; 당산철교 * Seogang Bridge; 서강대교 *

Mapo Bridge The Mapo Bridge crosses the Han River in South Korea and connects the Mapo District and the Yeongdeungpo District in the city of Seoul. The bridge was completed in 1970. Until 1984, the bridge was called Seoul Bridge. Suicides The suicide rate ...

; 마포대교 * Wonhyo Bridge; 원효대교 * Hangang Railway Bridge; 한강철교 *

Hangang Bridge The Hangang Bridge, literally ''Han River bridge'', crosses the Han River in Seoul, South Korea. It connects the districts of Yongsan-gu to the north and Dongjak-gu to the south, and crosses over the artificial island of Nodeulseom. The bridge ...

; 한강대교 *

Dongjak Bridge Dongjakdaegyo is a bridge over the Han River in Seoul, South Korea. It carries road traffic and Seoul Subway Line 4, and Dongjak Station is located at the southern end of this bridge. It is a blue truss bridge.(in Korean동작대교 銅雀大� ...

; 동작대교 *

Banpo Bridge The Banpo Bridge ( Korean: 반포대교; Hanja: 盤浦大橋) is a major bridge in downtown Seoul over the Han River, South Korea, connecting the Seocho and Yongsan Yongsan District (, ) is one of the 25 districts of Seoul, South Korea. Y ...

with Jamsu Bridge; 반포대교와 잠수교 * Hannam Bridge; 한남대교 * Dongho Bridge; 동호대교 *

Seongsu Bridge The Seongsu Bridge is a bridge built by Dong Ah Construction Industrial Company''New York Times'' By Reuters, Oct. 22, 1994 over the Han River in Seoul, South Korea. It links the Seongdong and Gangnam districts. The cantilever bridge was co ...

; 성수대교 * Yeongdong Bridge; 영동대교 * Cheongdam Bridge; 청담대교 * Jamsil Bridge; 잠실대교 * Jamsil Railway Bridge; 잠실철교 * Olympic Bridge; 올림픽대교 * Cheonho Bridge; 천호대교 * Gwangjin Bridge; 광진교 * Guri-Amsa Bridge; 구리암사대교 *

Gangdong Bridge The Gangdong Bridge is a bridge in over the Han River, South Korea, and connects the city of Guri and the Gangdong District of Seoul. This bridge is a part of the Seoul Ring Expressway The Capital Region First Ring Expressway (Formerly as ...

; 강동대교 * Route 60 * Paldang Bridge; 팔당대교

Subways crossing Hangang River

Seoul Subway Line 1 Seoul Metropolitan Subway Line 1 of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway is a rapid transit and commuter rail line which links central Seoul, South Korea to Soyosan Station in the northeast, Incheon in the southwest, and Sinchang (Soonchunhyang U ...

( Yongsan~

Noryangjin Noryangjin-dong is a ''dong'', neighbourhood of Dongjak-gu in Seoul, South Korea. See also *Administrative divisions of South Korea South Korea is made up of 17 first-tier administrative divisions: 6 metropolitan cities (''gwangyeoksi'' ), ...

) * Seoul Subway Line 2 (

Gangbyeon Gangbyeon Station is a station on the Seoul Subway Line 2 Seoul Subway Line 2 ( ko, 서울 지하철 2호선), also known as the Circle Line, is a circular line of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway. The line running clockwise is called the "inner ...

~ Jamsillaru, Dangsan~ Hapjeong) * Seoul Subway Line 3 ( Oksu~

Apgujeong Apgujeong-dong (; ) is a ward of Gangnam-gu in Seoul, South Korea. It is considered one of the wealthiest neighborhoods in South Korea. It was reported that housing price of Apgujeong-dong is approximately US$28,300 per one square meter bKorea M ...

) * Seoul Subway Line 4 ( Ichon~ Dongjak) * Seoul Subway Line 5 ( Yeouinaru~ Mapo, Gwangnaru~ Cheonho) * Seoul Subway Line 7 ( Ttukseom Resort~ Cheongdam) * Airport Railroad (

Gimpo International Airport Gimpo International Airport (), commonly known as Gimpo Airport , formerly rendered in English as Kimpo International Airport, is located in the far western end of Seoul, some west of the Central District of Seoul. Gimpo was the main intern ...

Digital Media City Digital Media City (DMC; ko, 디지털미디어시티) is a high-tech complex for digital technologies, housing ubiquitous networked offices, apartments, exhibitions, conference halls, television network headquarters and cultural centers in Seo ...

) * Bundang Line ( Apgujeongrodeo~

Seoul Forest Seoul Forest () is a large park in Seongdong-gu, Seoul, South Korea. It is open year-round, and admission is free. Seoul Forest opened in June 2005. The city government spent 235.2 billion won in development. It is the third largest park in Seo ...

) In 2017, Line 8 will open to extension that will cross the Hangang River.
In 2022, the

Shinbundang Line The Shinbundang Line (aka ''Sinbundang Line''; ; literally, ''New Bundang Line'') or DX Line for Dynamic Express Line is a long line of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway. It is the world's fifth subway to run completely driverless and the second com ...

will cross Hangang River by a tunnel beneath the riverbed.

In media

The Hangang River features as a location in several movies. Notable films include: * '' The Host'' (2006) in which the Wonhyo Bridge plays an important part. It is about a monster living along the Hangang River casting fear amongst the citizens of Seoul by attacking and eating them alive. * '' Castaway on the Moon'' (2009) in which Bamseom island is the island the main character finds himself stranded on. * '' Inchon'' (1981), which includes the destruction of the

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

* .

External links

Hangang Citizen's Park
operated by Seoul Metropolitan Government
Brief History of Hangang (River)
{{Authority control Rivers of Gangwon Province, South Korea Rivers of Gyeonggi Province Rivers of Seoul Rivers of Korea North Hwanghae International rivers of Asia Tourist attractions in Seoul