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An HVDC converter converts
electric power Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second. Standard prefixes apply to watts as with other SI units: thousands, millions and billions ...
from
high voltage High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, ''high voltage'' refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant sp ...
alternating current Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in whic ...
(AC) to
high-voltage direct current A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a power superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current (DC) for electric power transmission, in contrast with the more common alternating cur ...
(HVDC), or vice versa. HVDC is used as an alternative to AC for transmitting electrical energy over long distances or between AC power systems of different frequencies.Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers, , 1998, Chapter 1, pp 1-9. HVDC converters capable of converting up to two
gigawatts The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3. It is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. The watt is named after James Wat ...
(GW)Davidson, C.C., Preedy, R.M., Cao, J., Zhou, C., Fu, J., Ultra-High-Power Thyristor Valves for HVDC in Developing Countries,
IET __NOTOC__ IET can refer to: Organizations * Institute of Educational Technology, part of the Open University * Institution of Engineering and Technology, a UK-based professional engineering institution ** Institute of Engineers and Technicians, wh ...
9th International Conference on AC/DC Power Transmission, London, October 2010.
and with voltage ratings of up to 900 kilo
volt The volt (symbol: V) is the unit of electric potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827). Defin ...
s (kV)Skog, J.E., van Asten, H., Worzyk, T., Andersrød, T., Norned – World’s longest power cable, CIGRÉ session, Paris, 2010
paper reference B1-106
.
have been built, and even higher ratings are technically feasible. A complete
converter station An HVDC converter station (or simply converter station) is a specialised type of substation which forms the terminal equipment for a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line.Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, se ...
may contain several such converters in series and/or parallel to achieve total system DC voltage ratings of up to 1,100 kV. Almost all HVDC converters are inherently bi-directional; they can convert either from AC to DC (''rectification'') or from DC to AC (''inversion''). A complete HVDC system always includes at least one converter operating as a ''
rectifier A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The reverse operation (converting DC to AC) is performed by an inve ...
'' (converting AC to DC) and at least one operating as an ''inverter'' (converting DC to AC). Some HVDC systems take full advantage of this bi-directional property (for example, those designed for cross-border power trading, such as the Cross-Channel link between
England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
and
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
). Others, for example those designed to export power from a remote
power station A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an electrical grid. Many ...
such as the Itaipu scheme in
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
, may be optimised for power flow in only one preferred direction. In such schemes, power flow in the non-preferred direction may have a reduced capacity or poorer efficiency.


Types of HVDC converters

HVDC converters can take several different forms. Early HVDC systems, built until the 1930s, were effectively
rotary converter A rotary converter is a type of electrical machine which acts as a mechanical rectifier, inverter or frequency converter. Rotary converters were used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), or DC to AC power, before the adv ...
s and used
electromechanical In engineering, electromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems ...
conversion with
motor An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy. Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power g ...
- generator sets connected in series on the DC side and in parallel on the AC side. However, all HVDC systems built since the 1940s have used
electronic Electronic may refer to: *Electronics, the science of how to control electric energy in semiconductor * ''Electronics'' (magazine), a defunct American trade journal *Electronic storage, the storage of data using an electronic device *Electronic co ...
(static) converters. Electronic converters for HVDC are divided into two main categories. ''Line-commutated converters'' (HVDC classic) are made with electronic
switch In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most common type of ...
es that can only be turned on. ''Voltage-sourced converters'' are made with switching devices that can be turned both on and off. Line-commutated converters (LCC) used
mercury-arc valve A mercury-arc valve or mercury-vapor rectifier or (UK) mercury-arc rectifier is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is a type of cold cathode gas-fil ...
s until the 1970s,Peake, O.
The History of High Voltage Direct Current Transmission
, 3rd Australasian Engineering Heritage Conference 2009
or
thyristor A thyristor () is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type materials used for high-power applications. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch (or a latch), conducting when the gate receives a current ...
s from the 1970s to the present day. Voltage-source converters (VSC), which first appeared in HVDC in 1997,Asplund, G., Svensson, K., Jiang, H., Lindberg, J., Pålsson, R., DC transmission based on voltage source converters, CIGRÉ session, Paris, 1998, paper reference 14-302. use
transistor upright=1.4, gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink). A transistor is a semiconductor device used to Electronic amplifier, amplify or electronic switch, switch ...
s, usually the
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch, which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four alternating lay ...
(IGBT). As of 2012, both the line-commutated and voltage-source technologies are important, with line-commutated converters used mainly where very high capacity and efficiency are needed, and voltage-source converters used mainly for interconnecting weak AC systems, for connecting large-scale
wind power Wind power or wind energy is mostly the use of wind turbines to generate electricity. Wind power is a popular, sustainable, renewable energy source that has a much smaller impact on the environment than burning fossil fuels. Historically ...
to the grid or for HVDC interconnections that are likely to be expanded to become ''Multi-terminal'' HVDC systems in future. The market for voltage-source converter HVDC is growing fast, driven partly by the surge in investment in
offshore wind power Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the generation of electricity through wind farms in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of c ...
, with one particular type of converter, the Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC)Lesnicar, A., Marquardt, R., An innovative modular multi-level converter topology for a wide power range,
IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a 501(c)(3) professional association for electronic engineering and electrical engineering (and associated disciplines) with its corporate office in New York City and its operati ...
Power Tech Conference, Bologna, Italy, June 2003.
emerging as a front-runner.


Electromechanical converters

As early as the 1880s, the advantages of DC long-distance transmission were starting to become evident and several commercial power transmission systems were put into operation. The most successful of these used the system invented by
René Thury René Thury (7 August 1860 – 23 April 1938) was a Swiss pioneer in electrical engineering. He was known for his work with high voltage direct current electricity transmission and was known in the professional world as the "King of DC." Bio ...
and were based on the principle of connecting several motor-generator sets in series on the DC side. The best-known example was the 200 km, Lyon–Moutiers DC transmission scheme in
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
, which operated commercially from 1906 to 1936 transmitting power from the Moutiers hydroelectric plant to the city of
Lyon Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of ...
. Kimbark reports that this system operated quite reliably; however, the total end to end efficiency (at around 70%) was poor by today's standards. From the 1930s onwards, extensive research started to take place into static alternatives using
gas-filled tube A gas-filled tube, also commonly known as a discharge tube or formerly as a Plücker tube, is an arrangement of electrodes in a gas within an insulating, temperature-resistant envelope. Gas-filled tubes exploit phenomena related to electric ...
s – principally
mercury-arc valve A mercury-arc valve or mercury-vapor rectifier or (UK) mercury-arc rectifier is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is a type of cold cathode gas-fil ...
s but also
thyratron A thyratron is a type of gas-filled tube used as a high-power electrical switch and controlled rectifier. Thyratrons can handle much greater currents than similar hard-vacuum tubes. Electron multiplication occurs when the gas becomes ionized, p ...
s – which held the promise of significantly higher efficiency. Very small mechanical rotary convertors remained in use for niche applications in adverse environments, such as in aircraft and vehicles, as a power conversion method from batteries to the high voltages required for radio and RADAR, until the 1960s and the transistor era.


Line-commutated converters

Most of the HVDC systems in operation today are based on line-commutated converters (LCC). The term ''line-commutated'' indicates that the conversion process relies on the line voltage of the AC system to which the converter is connected in order to effect the ''commutation'' from one switching device to its neighbour.Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers, , 1998, Chapter 2, pp 10-55. Line-commutated converters use switching devices that are either uncontrolled (such as
diode A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A diod ...
s) or that can only be turned on (not off) by control action, such as
thyristor A thyristor () is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type materials used for high-power applications. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch (or a latch), conducting when the gate receives a current ...
s. Although HVDC converters can, in principle, be constructed from diodes, such converters can only be used in rectification mode and the lack of controllability of the DC voltage is a serious disadvantage. Consequently, in practice all LCC HVDC systems use either grid-controlled
mercury-arc valve A mercury-arc valve or mercury-vapor rectifier or (UK) mercury-arc rectifier is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is a type of cold cathode gas-fil ...
s (until the 1970s) or thyristors (to the present day). In a line-commutated converter, the DC current does not change direction; it flows through a large inductance and can be considered almost constant. On the AC side, the converter behaves approximately as a current source, injecting both grid-frequency and harmonic currents into the AC network. For this reason, a line-commutated converter for HVDC is also considered as a ''current-source converter''. Because the direction of current cannot be varied, reversal of the direction of power flow (where required) is achieved by reversing the polarity of DC voltage at both stations.


Line-commutated six-pulse bridge

The basic LCC configuration for HVDC uses a three-phase Graetz
bridge rectifier A diode bridge is a bridge rectifier circuit of four diodes that is used in the process of converting alternating current (AC) from the input terminals to direct current (DC, i.e. fixed polarity) on the output terminals. Its function is to con ...
or ''six-pulse bridge'', containing six electronic switches, each connecting one of the three phases to one of the two DC terminals. A complete switching element is usually referred to as a ''valve'', irrespective of its construction. Normally, two valves in the bridge are conducting at any time: one to a phase on the top row and one (from a different phase) on the bottom row. The two conducting valves connect two of the three AC phase voltages, in series, to the DC terminals. Thus, the DC output voltage at any given instant is given by the series combination of two AC phase voltages. For example, if valves V1 and V2 are conducting, the DC output voltage is given by the voltage of phase 1 minus the voltage of phase 3. Because of the unavoidable (but beneficial) inductance in the AC supply, the transition from one pair of conducting valves to the next does not happen instantly. Rather, there is a short ''overlap'' period when two valves on the same row of the bridge are conducting simultaneously. For example, if valves V1 and V2 are initially conducting and then valve V3 is turned on, conduction passes from V1 to V3 but for a short period both of these valves conduct simultaneously. During this period, the DC output voltage is given by the average of the voltages of phases 1 and 2, minus the voltage of phase 3. The ''overlap angle'' μ (or u) in an HVDC converter increases with the load current, but is typically around 20° at full load. During the overlap period, the output DC voltage is lower than it would otherwise be and the overlap period produces a visible ''notch'' in the DC voltage. An important effect of this is that the mean DC output voltage decreases as the overlap period increases; hence the mean DC voltage falls with increasing DC current. The mean DC output voltage of a six-pulse converter is given by: Where: : ''V''LLpeak - the peak value of the line to line input voltage (on the converter side of the converter
transformer A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
), : α - the firing angle of the thyristor : ''L''c - the commutating inductance per phase : ''I''d - the direct current The firing angle α represents the time delay from the point at which the
voltage Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed per unit of charge to ...
across a valve becomes positive (at which point a diode would start to conduct) and the thyristors being turned on. From the foregoing equation, it is clear that as the firing angle increases, the mean DC output voltage decreases. In fact, with a line-commutated converter, the firing angle represents the only fast way of controlling the converter. Firing angle control is used to regulate the DC voltages of both ends of the HVDC system continuously in order to obtain the desired level of power transfer. The DC output voltage of the converter steadily becomes less positive as the firing angle is increased: firing angles of up to 90° correspond to rectification and result in positive DC voltages, while firing angles above 90° correspond to inversion and result in negative DC voltages. However, the firing angle cannot be extended all the way to 180°, for two reasons. Firstly, allowance must be made for the overlap angle μ, and secondly for an additional ''extinction angle'' γ which is needed for the valves to recover their ability to withstand positive voltage after conducting current. The extinction angle γ is related to the ''turn-off time'' tq of the thyristors. A typical value of γ is 15°. α, γ and μ are inter-related thus: \gamma = 180 - \alpha - \mu (in degrees)


Line Commutated Twelve-pulse bridge

With a phase change only every 60°, considerable harmonic distortion is produced at both the DC and AC terminals when the six-pulse arrangement is used. Large filtering components are needed to restore the waveforms to sinusoidal. An enhancement of the six-pulse bridge arrangement uses 12 valves in a ''twelve-pulse bridge''. A twelve-pulse bridge is effectively two six-pulse bridges connected in series on the DC side and arranged with a phase displacement between their respective AC supplies so that some of the harmonic voltages and currents are cancelled. The phase displacement between the two AC supplies is usually 30° and is realised by using converter
transformer A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
s with two different secondary windings (or ''valve windings''). Usually one of the valve windings is star (wye)-connected and the other is delta-connected.Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers, , 1998, Chapter 7, pp 159-199. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30°, and the levels of low frequency harmonics are considerably reduced, considerably simplifying the filtering requirements. For this reason the twelve-pulse system has become standard on almost all line-commutated converter HVDC systems, although HVDC systems built with mercury arc valves make provision for temporary operation with one of the two six-pulse groups bypassed.


Mercury arc valves

Early LCC systems used
mercury-arc valve A mercury-arc valve or mercury-vapor rectifier or (UK) mercury-arc rectifier is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is a type of cold cathode gas-fil ...
s, with designs that had evolved from those used on high power industrial rectifiers. A number of adaptations were needed to make such valves suitable for HVDC, in particular the use of anode voltage grading electrodes to minimise the risk of '' arc-back'' at the very high reverse voltages experienced in HVDC. Much of the pioneering work in this area was performed in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
by Dr
Uno Lamm August Uno Lamm (May 22, 1904 – June 1, 1989) was a Swedish electrical engineer and inventor. He was sometimes called "The Father of High Voltage Direct Current" power transmission. During his career, Lamm obtained 150 patents. In 1980 the ...
, widely considered the “Father of HVDC” and in whose name the
IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a 501(c)(3) professional association for electronic engineering and electrical engineering (and associated disciplines) with its corporate office in New York City and its operati ...
introduced the “Uno Lamm Award” for outstanding contributions in the field of HVDC. The very long anode columns needed for high voltage applications limited the current which could safely be carried by each anode, so most mercury-arc valves for HVDC used several (most often, four) anode columns in parallel per valve. Usually, each arm of each six-pulse bridge consisted of only one mercury-arc valve, but two projects built in the former
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
used two or three mercury-arc valves in series per arm, without parallel connection of anode columns.Nekrasov, A.M., Posse, A.V., Work done in the Soviet Union on High-Voltage Long-Distance DC power transmission, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 78, part 3A, August 1959, pp515–521. Mercury arc valves for HVDC were rugged but required high maintenance. Because of this, most mercury-arc HVDC systems were built with bypass switchgear across each six-pulse bridge so that the HVDC scheme could be operated in six-pulse mode for short periods of maintenance. Mercury arc valves were built with ratings of up to 150 kV, 1800 A. The last (and most powerful) mercury arc system installed was that of the Nelson River DC Transmission System in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
, which used six anode columns in parallel per valve and was completed in 1977. The last operating mercury arc system (the HVDC Inter-Island link between the North and South Islands of
New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island coun ...
) was shut down in 2012. Mercury arc valves were also used on the following HVDC projects: * The Elbe Project in
Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitu ...
,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
* The Moscow–Kashira project in
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* The first phase of the
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project in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
* The original (160 MW) Cross Channel project between
England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
and
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
* The Volgograd–Donbass project linking
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...
and
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inva ...
* The first phase of the Konti–Skan link between
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
and
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* The Sakuma frequency converter in
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
* The first phase of the Italy–Corsica–Sardinia link * The first phase of the
Vancouver Island Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are of land. The island is the largest by ...
link in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
* The first phase of the Pacific DC Intertie from
Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
to
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in the
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* The
Kingsnorth Kingsnorth is a mixed rural and urban village and relatively large civil parish adjoining Ashford in Kent, England. The civil parish includes the district of Park Farm. Features The Greensand Way, a long distance footpath stretching from Hasl ...
link in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
,
England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
* The first phase of the Nelson River DC Transmission System in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...


Thyristor valves

The
thyristor A thyristor () is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type materials used for high-power applications. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch (or a latch), conducting when the gate receives a current ...
valve was first used in HVDC systems in 1972 on the
Eel River Converter Station The Eel River Converter Station is a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter station in Eel River Crossing, New Brunswick, Canada; it is the first operative HVDC station in the world equipped with thyristors. The Eel River Converter Statio ...
in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
. The thyristor is a solid-state
semiconductor A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way ...
device similar to the
diode A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A diod ...
, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a defined instant. Because thyristors have
breakdown voltage The breakdown voltage of an insulator is the minimum voltage that causes a portion of an insulator to experience electrical breakdown and become electrically conductive. For diodes, the breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse voltage that mak ...
s of only a few kilovolts each, HVDC thyristor valves are built using large numbers of thyristors connected in series. Additional passive components such as grading
capacitor A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by virtue of accumulating electric charges on two close surfaces insulated from each other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals. The effect of ...
s and
resistor A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active e ...
s need to be connected in parallel with each thyristor in order to ensure that the voltage across the valve is shared uniformly between the thyristors. The thyristor plus its grading circuits and other auxiliary equipment is known as a ''thyristor level''. Each thyristor valve will typically contain tens or hundreds of thyristor levels, each operating at a different (high) potential with respect to earth. The command information to turn on the thyristors therefore cannot simply be sent using a wire connection – it needs to be isolated. The isolation method can be magnetic (using pulse
transformer A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
s) but is usually
optical Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultravio ...
. Two optical methods are used: indirect and direct optical triggering. In the indirect optical triggering method, the low-voltage control electronics sends light pulses along
optical fibres An optical fiber, or optical fibre in Commonwealth English, is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means t ...
to the ''high-side'' control electronics, which derives its power from the voltage across each thyristor. The alternative direct optical triggering method dispenses with most of the high-side electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors (LTTs), although a small monitoring electronics unit may still be required for protection of the valve. As of 2012, thyristor valves had been used on over 100 HVDC schemes, with many more still under construction or being planned. The highest power rating of any single HVDC converter (twelve-pulse bridge) in operation was 2000 MW in 2010, on the ±660 kV Ningdong–Shandong scheme in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
. Two such converters are provided at each end of the scheme, which is of conventional bipolar construction. Since 2007 the highest voltage rating of a single HVDC converter has been the ±450 kV NorNed scheme linking
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of ...
to the
Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, which has only a single converter at each end in an arrangement that is unusual for an LCC HVDC scheme.


Voltage-source converters

Because thyristors (and mercury rectifiers) can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on the external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one degree of freedom – when in the cycle to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in some circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter is connected must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the timing for the commutating voltage – the HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system. This is not a problem supplying additional power to a grid that is already live, but cannot be used as the sole source of power. With other types of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off timing can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, IGBTs can be used to make ''self-commutated converters'' which are closer to a large inverter in operation. In such converters, the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a voltage-source converter (or ''voltage-sourced converter''). The additional controllability gives many advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the harmonic performance, and the fact that (being self-commutated) the converter no longer relies on synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced converter can therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is impossible with LCC HVDC. Voltage-source converters are also considerably more compact than line-commutated converters (mainly because much less harmonic filtering is needed) and are preferable to line-commutated converters in locations where space is at a premium, for example on offshore platforms. In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters maintain a constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much easier to connect into a ''Multi-terminal'' HVDC system or “DC Grid”. HVDC systems based on voltage-source converters normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary. This simplifies the construction of the converter transformer. However, there are several different configurations of voltage-source converter and research is continuing to take place into new alternatives.


Two-level converter

From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the Hellsjön experimental link commissioned in
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in 1997) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built were based on the ''two level converter''. The two-level converter is the simplest type of three-phase voltage-source converter and can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing
capacitor A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by virtue of accumulating electric charges on two close surfaces insulated from each other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals. The effect of ...
s. Such converters derive their name from the fact that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is switched between two discrete voltage levels, corresponding to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC terminals. When the upper of the two valves in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the positive DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of +½ Ud with respect to the midpoint potential of the converter. Conversely when the lower valve in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of −½ Ud. The two valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on simultaneously, as this would result in an uncontrolled discharge of the DC capacitor, risking severe damage to the converter equipment. The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a two-level converter is a
square wave A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. In an ideal square wave, the transitions b ...
; however this would produce unacceptable levels of harmonic distortion, so some form of
pulse-width modulation Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a method of reducing the average power delivered by an electrical signal, by effectively chopping it up into discrete parts. The average value of voltage (and current) fed ...
(PWM) is always used to improve the harmonic distortion of the converter. As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are switched on and off many times (typically 20) in each mains cycle. This results in high ' in the IGBTs and reduces the overall transmission
efficiency Efficiency is the often measurable ability to avoid wasting materials, energy, efforts, money, and time in doing something or in producing a desired result. In a more general sense, it is the ability to do things well, successfully, and without ...
. Several different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC but in all cases the efficiency of the two-level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC because of the higher switching losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power losses of around 0.7% at full load (per end, excluding the HVDC line or cable) while with 2-level voltage-source converters the equivalent figure is 2-3% per end. Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that, in order to achieve the very high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several hundred IGBTs have to be connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve.VSC Transmission, CIGRÉbr>Technical Brochure No. 269
, 2005.
This requires specialised types of IGBT with sophisticated ''gate drive'' circuits, and can lead to very high levels of
electromagnetic interference Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrost ...
.


Three-level converter

In an attempt to improve on the poor harmonic performance of the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built with ''three level converters''. Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two) discrete voltage levels at the AC terminal of each phase: +½ Ud, 0 and -½ Ud. A common type of three-level converter is the ''diode-clamped'' (or ''neutral-point-clamped'') converter, where each phase contains four IGBT valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line voltage, along with two clamping diode valves. The DC capacitor is split into two series-connected branches, with the clamping diode valves connected between the capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter and three-quarter points on each phase. To obtain a positive output voltage (+½ Ud) the top two IGBT valves are turned on, to obtain a negative output voltage (-½ Ud) the bottom two IGBT valves are turned on and to obtain zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves are turned on. In this latter state, the two clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase. In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called ''active neutral-point clamped'' converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving additional controllability. Such converters were used on the
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project in
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and the Cross Sound Cable link in the
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. However, the modest improvement in harmonic performance came at a considerable price in terms of increased complexity, and the design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages higher than the ±150 kV used on those two projects. Another type of three-level converter, used in some
adjustable-speed drive Motor drive means a system that includes a motor. An adjustable speed motor drive means a system that includes a motor that has multiple operating speeds. A variable speed motor drive is a system that includes a motor and is continuously variabl ...
s but never in HVDC, replaces the clamping diode valves by a separate, isolated, ''flying'' capacitor connected between the one-quarter and three-quarter points. The operating principle is similar to that of the diode-clamped converter. Both the diode-clamped and flying capacitor variants of three-level converter can be extended to higher numbers of output levels (for example, five), but the complexity of the circuit increases disproportionately and such circuits have not been considered practical for HVDC applications.


Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC)

First proposed for HVDC applications in 2003 by Marquardt and first used commercially in the Trans Bay Cable project in
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,Westerweller T., Friedrich, K., Armonies, U., Orini, A., Parquet, D., Wehn, S., Trans Bay cable – world's first HVDC system using multilevel voltage-sourced converter, CIGRÉ session, Paris, 2010
paper reference B4-101
the ''Modular Multi-Level Converter'' (MMC) is now becoming the most common type of voltage-source converter for HVDC. Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC consists of six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal. However, where each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled switch consisting of a large number of IGBTs connected in series, each valve of a MMC is a separate controllable voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve consists of a number of independent converter ''submodules'', each containing its own storage capacitor. In the most common form of the circuit, the ''half-bridge'' variant, each submodule contains two IGBTs connected in series across the capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one of the two capacitor terminals brought out as external connections. Depending on which of the two IGBTs in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is either bypassed or connected into the circuit. Each submodule therefore acts as an independent two-level converter generating a voltage of either 0 or Usm (where Usm is the submodule capacitor voltage). With a suitable number of submodules connected in series, the valve can synthesize a stepped voltage waveform that approximates very closely to a sine-wave and contains very low levels of harmonic distortion. The MMC differs from other types of converter in that current flows continuously in all six valves of the converter throughout the mains-frequency cycle. As a result, concepts such as “on-state” and “off-state” have no meaning in the MMC. The direct current splits equally into the three phases and the alternating current splits equally into the upper and lower valve of each phase. The current in each valve is therefore related to the direct current Id and alternating current Iac as follows: Upper valve: Lower valve: A typical MMC for an HVDC application contains around 300 submodules connected in series in each valve and is therefore equivalent to a 301 level converter. Consequently, the harmonic performance is excellent and usually no filters are needed. A further advantage of the MMC is that PWM is not necessary, with the result that the power losses are much lower than those of the 2-level converter, at around 1% per end.Jacobsson, B., Karlsson, P., Asplund, G., Harnefors, L., Jonsson, T., VSC - HVDC transmission with cascaded two-level converters, CIGRÉ session, Paris, 2010
paper reference B4-110
Finally, because direct series-connection of IGBTs is not necessary, the IGBT gate drives do not need to be as sophisticated as those for a 2-level converter. The MMC has two principal disadvantages. Firstly, the control is much more complex than that of a 2-level converter. Balancing the voltages of each of the submodule capacitors is a significant challenge and requires considerable computing power and high-speed communications between the central control unit and the valve. Secondly, the submodule capacitors themselves are large and bulky. A MMC is considerably larger than a comparable-rated 2-level converter, although this may be offset by the saving in space from not requiring filters. As of 2012 the largest-capacity MMC HVDC system in operation is still the 400 MW Trans Bay Cable scheme but many larger schemes are under construction, including an underground cable interconnection from
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to
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consisting of two 1000 MW links in parallel at a voltage of ±320 kV.


Variants

A variant of the MMC, proposed by one manufacturer, involves connecting multiple IGBTs in series in each of the two switches that make up the submodule. This gives an output voltage waveform with fewer, larger, steps than the conventional MMC arrangement. This arrangement is referred to as the ''Cascaded Two Level'' (CTL) converter. Functionally it is exactly equivalent to the conventional half-bridge MMC in every respect except for the harmonic performance, which is slightly inferior – although still claimed to be good enough to avoid the need for filtering in most instances. Another alternative replaces the ''half bridge'' MMC submodule described above, with a ''full bridge'' submodule containing four IGBTs in an
H bridge A H-bridge is an electronic circuit that switches the polarity of a voltage applied to a load. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards or backwards. The name is derived from its common sch ...
arrangement, instead of two. The full-bridge variant of MMC allows the submodule capacitor to be inserted into the circuit in either polarity. This confers additional flexibility in controlling the converter and allows the converter to block the fault current which arises from a short-circuit between the positive and negative DC terminals (something which is impossible with any of the preceding types of VSC). Furthermore, it allows the DC voltage to be of either polarity (like a LCC HVDC scheme), giving rise to the possibility of hybrid LCC and VSC HVDC systems. However, the full-bridge arrangement requires twice as many IGBTs and has higher power losses than the equivalent half-bridge arrangement.


Other types of voltage-source converter

Various other types of converter have been proposed, combining features of the two-level and Modular Multi-Level Converters. These ''hybrid'' VSC systems aim to achieve the low losses and high harmonic performance of the MMC with a more compact design and greater controllability, but these concepts are still at the research stage.Trainer, D.R., Davidson, C.C., Oates, C.D.M., MacLeod, N.M., Critchley, D.R., Crookes, R.W., A New Hybrid Voltage-Sourced Converter for HVDC Power Transmission, CIGRÉ session, Paris, 2010
paper reference B4-111


See also

*
High-voltage direct current A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a power superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current (DC) for electric power transmission, in contrast with the more common alternating cur ...
*
HVDC converter station An HVDC converter station (or simply converter station) is a specialised type of substation which forms the terminal equipment for a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line.Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, s ...
*
List of HVDC projects This is a list of notable high-voltage direct-current power transmission projects. HVDC projects for long-distance transmission have two (or rarely, more) converter stations and a transmission line interconnecting them. Generally overhead lines ...
*
Rectifier A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The reverse operation (converting DC to AC) is performed by an inve ...
*
Inverter (electrical) A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opp ...
*
Mercury-arc valve A mercury-arc valve or mercury-vapor rectifier or (UK) mercury-arc rectifier is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is a type of cold cathode gas-fil ...
*
Thyristor A thyristor () is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type materials used for high-power applications. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch (or a latch), conducting when the gate receives a current ...
*
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch, which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four alternating lay ...


References


Further reading

* Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers, , 1998. * Kimbark, E.W., Direct current transmission, volume 1, Wiley Interscience, 1971. * Cory, B.J., Adamson, C., Ainsworth, J.D., Freris, L.L., Funke, B., Harris, L.A., Sykes, J.H.M., High voltage direct current converters and systems, Macdonald & Co. (publishers) Ltd, 1965. * Williams, B.W., Power Electronics - devices, drivers and applications, Macmillan Press, , 1992. * Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P., Power Electronics - converters, applications and design, John Wiley & Sons, , 1995.


External links


CIGRÉ B4 Compendium of HVDC Schemes, 2009.
{{Electricity grid modernization High-voltage direct current