''Hygrocybe'' is a

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

agaric An agaric () is a type of fungal fruiting body characterized by the presence of a pileus (cap) that is clearly differentiated from the stipe (stalk), with lamellae (gills) on the underside of the pileus. It is a type of mushroom (or toadstool) ...

s (gilled fungi) in the family

Hygrophoraceae The Hygrophoraceae are a family (biology), family of fungi in the order (biology), order Agaricales. Originally conceived as containing white-spored, thick-gilled agarics (gilled mushrooms), including ''Hygrophorus'' and ''Hygrocybe'' species (th ...

. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America),

basidiocarp In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome, or basidioma () is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do no ...

s (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy

cap A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head co ...

s, white

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual reproduction, sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for biological dispersal, dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores fo ...

s, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe waxcaps are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands (termed

waxcap grassland Waxcap grassland is short-wikt:sward, sward, nutrient-poor grassland that supports a rich assemblage of larger fungi, particularly waxcaps (species of ''Hygrocybe'' and related genera), characteristic of such habitats. Waxcap grasslands occur pr ...

s) which are a declining habitat, making many ''Hygrocybe'' species of

conservation Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws. Conservation may also refer to: Environment and natural resources * Nature conservation, the protection and manage ...

concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, ''

Hygrocybe citrinovirens ''Hygrocybe citrinovirens'' is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Citrine Waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimp ...

'', '' H. punicea'', '' H. spadicea'', and '' H. splendidissima'', are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the

IUCN Red List The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is an inventory of the global conservation status and extinction risk of biological ...

of Threatened Species. Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be

biotroph Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives (at least some of the time) on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The ent ...

s. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several species are considered

edible An edible item is any item that is safe for humans to eat. "Edible" is differentiated from " eatable" because it does not indicate how an item tastes, only whether it is fit to be eaten. Nonpoisonous items found in nature – such as some mushroo ...

and are sometimes sold in local markets.

Taxonomy

History

''Hygrocybe'' was first published in 1821 by Swedish mycologist

Elias Magnus Fries Elias Magnus Fries (15 August 1794 – 8 February 1878) was a Swedish mycologist and botanist. He is sometimes called the Mycology, "Linnaeus of Mycology". In his works he described and assigned botanical names to hundreds of fungus and li ...

as a subsection of ''

Agaricus ''Agaricus'' is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi containing both edible and poisonous species, with over 400 members worldwide and possibly again as many disputed or newly discovered species. The genus includes the common ("button") mushroom ...

'' and in 1871 was raised to the rank of genus by

Kummer Kummer is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: *Bernhard Kummer (1897–1962), German Germanist * Clare Kummer (1873–1958), American composer, lyricist and playwright * Clarence Kummer (1899–1930), American jockey * Chris ...

. In several papers,

Karsten Karsten or Carsten is a both a given name and a surname. It is believed to be either derived from a Low German form of Christian, or "man from karst". Notable persons with the name include: Given name ;Carsten: * Carsten Becker (born 1990), Germa ...

and

Murrill Murrill is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Herbert Murrill (1909–1952), English musician, composer, and organist * William Murrill (1869–1957), American mycologist See also * Murrell (disambiguation) * Murrills Murrill ...

used the name ''Hydrocybe'', but this is now taken as an orthographic variant of ''Hygrocybe''. The generic name is derived from the

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

ῦγρὁς (= moist) + κυβη (= head). Despite its comparatively early publication, the genus ''Hygrocybe'' was not widely accepted until the 1970s, most previous authors treating it as a synonym of ''

Hygrophorus ''Hygrophorus'' is a genus of agarics (gilled mushrooms) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called "woodwaxes" in the UK or "waxy caps" (together with '' Hygrocybe'' species) in North America, basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are typically fleshy, often ...

'', a related genus of

ectomycorrhizal An ectomycorrhiza (from Greek ἐκτός ', "outside", μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, abbreviated EcM) is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobion ...

agarics.

Current status

Recent

molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...

research, based on

cladistic Cladistics ( ; from Ancient Greek 'branch') is an approach to biological classification in which organisms are categorized in groups ("clades") based on hypotheses of most recent common ancestry. The evidence for hypothesized relationships is ...

analysis of

DNA sequences A nucleic acid sequence is a succession of bases within the nucleotides forming alleles within a DNA (using GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the ...

, has shown that ''Hygrocybe'' ''

sensu lato ''Sensu'' is a Latin word meaning "in the sense of". It is used in a number of fields including biology, geology, linguistics, semiotics, and law. Commonly it refers to how strictly or loosely an expression is used in describing any particular co ...

'' is

paraphyletic Paraphyly is a taxonomic term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In co ...

and does not form a single

clade In biology, a clade (), also known as a Monophyly, monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. Clades are the fundamental unit of cladistics, a modern approach t ...

within the Hygrophoraceae. As a result, many species formerly referred to ''Hygrocybe'' have been transferred to the genera ''

Chromosera ''Chromosera'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Within the family Hygrophoraceae it is closely related to the genus '' Gloioxanthomyces''. It contains eight brightly colored species showing yellow and/or bluish to violet colorati ...

'', '' Cuphophyllus'', ''

Gliophorus ''Gliophorus'' is a genus of agaric fungi in the family (biology), family Hygrophoraceae. ''Gliophorus'' species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, ''Gli ...

'', ''

Gloioxanthomyces ''Gloioxanthomyces'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was circumscribed in 2013 to contain '' G. nitidus'', and the type species, '' G. vitellinus''. Within the Hygrophoraceae, it is in the tribe ''Chromosereae'' and ...

'', ''

Humidicutis ''Humidicutis'' is a small genus of brightly coloured agarics, the majority of which are found in Eastern Australia. They were previously described as members of ''Hygrocybe''. The genus ''Porpolomopsis'' is closely related, and the species in it ...

'', ''

Neohygrocybe ''Neohygrocybe'' is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. ''Neohygrocybe'' species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, ''Neohygrocybe'' sp ...

'', or ''

Porpolomopsis ''Porpolomopsis'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was circumscribed in 2008 by Andreas Bresinsky to contain '' P. calyptriformis''. Bresinsky separated it from the genus ''Hygrocybe'' based on its color and the absence ...

''. This leaves ''Hygrocybe'' ''

sensu stricto ''Sensu'' is a Latin word meaning "in the sense of". It is used in a number of fields including biology, geology, linguistics, semiotics, and law. Commonly it refers to how strictly or loosely an expression is used in describing any particular c ...

'' as a smaller but more cohesive genus of species related to the

type Type may refer to: Science and technology Computing * Typing, producing text via a keyboard, typewriter, etc. * Data type, collection of values used for computations. * File type * TYPE (DOS command), a command to display contents of a file. * ...

, ''

Hygrocybe conica ''Hygrocybe conica'' is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Hygrophoraceae. In the UK it has been given the recommended English name of blackening waxcap, since all parts of the basidiocarp (fruit body) blacken with age. In North ...

''. No comprehensive

monograph A monograph is generally a long-form work on one (usually scholarly) subject, or one aspect of a subject, typically created by a single author or artist (or, sometimes, by two or more authors). Traditionally it is in written form and published a ...

of the genus has yet been published. In Europe, however, species of ''Hygrocybe'' have been illustrated and described in a standard English-language guide by Boertmann (2010) and also (together with ''Hygrophorus'') in an Italian guide by Candusso (1997). European species have also been covered, more briefly, in descriptive French keys by Bon (1990). Dutch species were illustrated and described by Arnolds (1990). No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America, the most recent being by

Hesler Hesler may refer to: * Mount Hesler, mount in the Selkirk Mountains of British Columbia, Canada * Georg Hesler (1427–1482), German Roman Catholic cardinal and bishop *Lexemuel Ray Hesler Lexemuel Ray Hesler (20 February 1888 – 20 November 19 ...

Smith Smith may refer to: People and fictional characters * Metalsmith, or simply smith, a craftsman fashioning tools or works of art out of various metals * Smith (given name) * Smith (surname), a family name originating in England ** List of people ...

(1963). There is, however, a guide to Californian species by Largent (1985). In Australia, ''Hygrocybe'' species have been illustrated and described by Young (2005) and in New Zealand by Horak (1990).

Species

File:2011-03-08 Hygrocybe flavescens 64217.jpg, , alt=Hygrocybe flavescens File:Hygrocybe conica - geograph.org.uk - 240361.jpg, , alt=Hygrocybe conica File:Stumpfer Saftling (3).JPG, , alt=Hygrocybe chlorophana File:Hygrocybe appalachianensis (Hesler & A.H. Sm.) Kronaw 352959.jpg, , alt=Hygrocybe appalachianensis

Description

Fruit bodies of ''Hygrocybe'' species are all

oid, most (but not all) having smooth to slightly scaly caps that are convex to conical and dry to waxy or viscid when damp. Many (but not all) are brightly coloured in shades of red, orange, or yellow. Where present, the gills beneath the cap are often equally coloured and usually distant, thick, and waxy. One atypical South American species, ''Hygrocybe aphylla'', lacks gills. The stems of ''Hygrocybe'' species lack a

ring (The) Ring(s) may refer to: * Ring (jewellery), a round band, usually made of metal, worn as ornamental jewelry * To make a sound with a bell, and the sound made by a bell Arts, entertainment, and media Film and TV * ''The Ring'' (franchise), a ...

. The

spore print 300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing warm orange ("tussock") color spore print. ...

is white. Fruit bodies of some species, notably ''

'', blacken with age or when bruised. Microscopically, ''Hygrocybe'' species lack true

cystidia A cystidium (: cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that are o ...

and have comparatively large, smooth,

inamyloid In mycology a tissue or feature is said to be amyloid if it has a positive amyloid reaction when subjected to a crude chemical test using iodine as an ingredient of either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, producing a blue to blue-black staini ...

basidiospores A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycete fungi, a grouping that includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are pr ...

Habitat, nutrition, and distribution

Species of ''Hygrocybe'' are soil-dwelling. In Europe, most species are typical of unimproved (nutrient-poor), short-sward grasslands, often termed "

s", but elsewhere they are more commonly found in woodland. Their metabolism has long been debated, but recent research suggests that they are not

saprotrophic Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ...

but rather

symbiotically Symbiosis (Ancient Greek : living with, companionship < : together; and ''bíōsis'': living) is any type of a close and long-term

H. conica'' have been detected in plant roots. Species are distributed worldwide, from the tropics to the sub-polar regions. Around 150 have been described to date. Waxcaps receive most attention in northern Europe, where they are found in nutrient-poor pastures. However, outside Europe, waxcaps are more commonly associated with woodland habitats, for example the sclerophyll forests site at

Lane Cove Bushland Park ''Lane Cove Bushland Park'' is located in suburban Lane Cove, 5 kilometres from the centre of Sydney, Australia. It is regarded as one of the more interesting areas of fungi in the country. In the year 2000, Bushland Park was placed on the Re ...

and

Ferndale Park Ferndale Park is located in suburban , from the centre of Sydney, Australia. It is an important urban forest reserve, preserving Blackbutt forest and the mossy gully rainforest. Most of this original forest was cleared for agriculture and housi ...

Sydney Sydney is the capital city of the States and territories of Australia, state of New South Wales and the List of cities in Australia by population, most populous city in Australia. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Syd ...

Conservation

In Europe, waxcap grasslands and their associated fungi are of conservation concern, since unimproved grasslands (formerly commonplace) have declined dramatically as a result of changes in agricultural practice. This decline has led to four European ''Hygrocybe'' species, ''

'', '' H. punicea'', '' H. spadicea'', and '' H. splendidissima'', being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the

of Threatened Species. Elsewhere, several rare and localized endemic species are assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. They include ''

Hygrocybe boothii ''Hygrocybe'' is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, an ...

'' in Australia, ''

Hygrocybe noelokelani ''Hygrocybe'' is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, an ...

'' and ''

Hygrocybe pakelo ''Hygrocybe'' is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy pileus (mycology), cap ...

'' in Hawaii, ''

Hygrocybe striatella ''Hygrocybe'' is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, an ...

'' in Chile, and ''

Hygrocybe flavifolia ''Hygrocybe flavifolia'' is a mushroom of the waxcap genus ''Hygrocybe''. Found in North America, it was described as new to science by Alexander H. Smith and Lexemuel Ray Hesler in 1942 as a species of ''Hygrophorus''. Rolf Singer transferred ...

'' in California.

Uses

Because ''Hygrocybe'' species cannot be maintained in

culture Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...

, none is cultivated commercially. Fruit bodies of a few species are considered edible in eastern Europe, south-east Asia, and Central America and are collected and consumed locally.

References

External links

WaxCap Website
''

University of Wales, Aberystwyth Aberystwyth University () is a public research university in Aberystwyth, Wales. Aberystwyth was a founding member institution of the former federal University of Wales. The university has over 8,000 students studying across three academic facul ...

'' {{Authority control Hygrophoraceae Agaricales genera Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries