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Henry Harley "Hap" Arnold (25 June 1886 – 15 January 1950) was an American
general officer A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air force, air and space forces, marines or naval infantry. In some usages, the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colone ...
holding the ranks of General of the Army and later, General of the Air Force. Arnold was an aviation pioneer, Chief of the Air Corps (1938–1941), commanding general of the
United States Army Air Forces The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF or AAF) was the major land-based aerial warfare service component of the United States Army and ''de facto'' aerial warfare service branch of the United States during and immediately after World War II ...
, the only United States Air Force general to hold five-star rank, and the only officer to hold a five-star rank in two different U.S. military services. Arnold was also the founder of Project RAND, which evolved into one of the world's largest non-profit global policy think tanks, the
RAND Corporation The RAND Corporation, doing business as RAND, is an American nonprofit global policy think tank, research institute, and public sector consulting firm. RAND engages in research and development (R&D) in several fields and industries. Since the ...
, and was one of the founders of
Pan American World Airways Pan American World Airways, originally founded as Pan American Airways and more commonly known as Pan Am, was an airline that was the principal and largest international air carrier and unofficial overseas flag carrier of the United States for ...
. Instructed in flying by the
Wright Brothers The Wright brothers, Orville Wright (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were American aviation List of aviation pioneers, pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flyin ...
, Arnold was one of the first military pilots worldwide, and one of the first three rated pilots in the history of the
United States Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the Air force, air service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is one of the six United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Tracing its ori ...
.Arnold, Capt. Charles DeF. Chandler, and Lt. Thomas Milling all qualified for the rating on July 5, 1912. Milling received the first certificate while Arnold was listed first on War Department General Order Number 39, which was the first list of rated Military Aviators. He overcame a
fear of flying Fear of flying is the fear of being on an aircraft, such as an airplane or helicopter, while it is in flight. It is also referred to as flying anxiety, flying phobia, flight phobia, aviophobia, aerophobia, or pteromerhanophobia (although aero ...
that resulted from his experiences with early flight, supervised the expansion of the Air Service during
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, and became a protégé of then Brigadier General (later Colonel) Billy Mitchell. Arnold rose to command the Army Air Forces immediately prior to the American entry into World War II and directed its hundred-fold expansion from an organization of little more than 20,000 men and 800 first-line combat aircraft into the largest and most powerful air force in the world. An advocate of technological
research and development Research and development (R&D or R+D), known in some countries as OKB, experiment and design, is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products. R&D constitutes the first stage ...
, his tenure saw the development of the intercontinental bomber, the jet fighter, the extensive use of
radar Radar is a system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), direction ( azimuth and elevation angles), and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It is a radiodetermination method used to detect and track ...
, global
airlift An airlift is the organized delivery of Materiel, supplies or personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two distinct types: strategic and tactical. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material lo ...
and atomic warfare as mainstays of modern air power. Arnold's most widely used nickname, "Hap", was short for "Happy", attributed variously to work associates when he moonlighted as a silent film
stunt pilot Stunt flying refers to any stunts performed in an aircraft. It encompasses aerobatics, wing walking, and transferring from one airplane to another or to a moving vehicle on the ground, such as an automobile or train, and vice versa. History From t ...
in October 1911, or to his wife, who began using the nickname in her correspondence in 1931 following the death of Arnold's mother. His family called him Harley during his youth, and his mother and wife called him "Sunny". His West Point classmates called Arnold "Pewt" or "Benny" and his immediate subordinates and headquarters staff referred to him as "The Chief".


Early life and career

Born 25 June 1886, in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, Arnold was the son of Dr. Herbert Alonzo Arnold (1857–1933), a
physician A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
and a member of the prominent political and military
Arnold Family The Arnold family is an American political and military family with ties to New England, Georgia and Ohio. The descendants of American Revolutionary War general Benedict Arnold in Great Britain, while not particularly politically active, also ...
. His mother was Anna Louise ("Gangy") Harley (1857–1931), from a " Dunker" farm family and the first female in her family to attend high school. Arnold was
Baptist Baptists are a Christian denomination, denomination within Protestant Christianity distinguished by baptizing only professing Christian believers (believer's baptism) and doing so by complete Immersion baptism, immersion. Baptist churches ge ...
in religious belief but had strong
Mennonite Mennonites are a group of Anabaptism, Anabaptist Christianity, Christian communities tracing their roots to the epoch of the Radical Reformation. The name ''Mennonites'' is derived from the cleric Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland, part of ...
ties through both families. However, unlike her husband, "Gangy" Arnold was "fun-loving and prone to laughter," and not rigid in her beliefs. When Arnold was eleven, his father responded to the
Spanish–American War The Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898) was fought between Restoration (Spain), Spain and the United States in 1898. It began with the sinking of the USS Maine (1889), USS ''Maine'' in Havana Harbor in Cuba, and resulted in the ...
by serving as a
surgeon In medicine, a surgeon is a medical doctor who performs surgery. Even though there are different traditions in different times and places, a modern surgeon is a licensed physician and received the same medical training as physicians before spec ...
in the Pennsylvania National Guard, of which he remained a member for the next 24 years. Arnold attended Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1903. The athletic fields at Lower Merion are named after him. Arnold had no intention of attending
West Point The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
(he was preparing to attend
Bucknell University Bucknell University is a Private college, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal-arts college in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1846 as the University at Lewisburg, it now consists of the College of Arts a ...
and enter the Baptist ministry) but took the entrance examination after his older brother Thomas defied their father and refused to do so. Arnold placed second on the list and received a delayed appointment when the nominated cadet confessed to being married, prohibited by academy regulations. Arnold entered the United States Military Academy at West Point as a "Juliette" (one month late), having just turned 17. His cadet career was spent as a "clean sleeve" (cadet private). At the academy he helped found the "Black Hand", a group of
cadet A cadet is a student or trainee within various organisations, primarily in military contexts where individuals undergo training to become commissioned officers. However, several civilian organisations, including civil aviation groups, maritime ...
pranksters, and led it during his first class year. He played second-team
running back A running back (RB) is a member of the offensive backfield in gridiron football. The primary roles of a running back are to receive American football plays#Offensive terminology, handoffs from the quarterback to Rush (American football)#Offense ...
for the varsity
football Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kick (football), kicking a football (ball), ball to score a goal (sports), goal. Unqualified, football (word), the word ''football'' generally means the form of football t ...
team, was a
shot put The shot put is a track-and-field event involving "putting" (throwing) a heavy spherical Ball (sports), ball—the ''shot''—as far as possible. For men, the sport has been a part of the Olympic Games, modern Olympics since their 1896 Summer Olym ...
ter on the track and field team, and excelled at
polo Polo is a stick and ball game that is played on horseback as a traditional field sport. It is one of the world's oldest known team sports, having been adopted in the Western world from the game of Chovgan (), which originated in ancient ...
. Arnold's academic standing varied between the middle and the lower end of his class, with his better scores in mathematics and science. He wanted assignment to the
Cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
but an inconsistent demerit record and a cumulative general merit class standing of 66th out of 111 cadets resulted in his being commissioned on 24 June 1907, as a second lieutenant,
Infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
. He initially protested the assignment (there was no commissioning requirement for USMA graduates in 1907), but was persuaded to accept a commission in the 29th Infantry, at the time stationed in the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
. Arnold arrived in Manila on 7 December 1907. Arnold disliked infantry troop duties and volunteered to assist Captain Arthur S. Cowan of the 20th Infantry, who was on temporary assignment in the Philippines mapping the island of
Luzon Luzon ( , ) is the largest and most populous List of islands in the Philippines, island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the List of islands of the Philippines, Philippine archipelago, it is the economic and political ce ...
. Cowan returned to the United States following completion of the
cartography Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can ...
detail, transferred to the
Signal Corps A signal corps is a military branch, responsible for military communications (''signals''). Many countries maintain a signal corps, which is typically subordinate to a country's army. Military communication usually consists of radio, telephone, ...
, and was assigned to recruit two lieutenants to become pilots. Cowan contacted Arnold, who cabled his interest in also transferring to the Signal Corps but heard nothing in reply for two years. In June 1909, the 29th Infantry relocated to Fort Jay, New York, and en route to his new duty station by way of
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, Arnold saw his first airplane in flight, piloted by Louis Blériot. In 1911, Arnold applied for transfer to the United States Army Ordnance Department because it offered an immediate promotion to
first lieutenant First lieutenant is a commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces; in some forces, it is an appointment. The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations, but in most forces it is sub-divided into a se ...
. While awaiting the results of the required competitive examination, he learned that his interest in aeronautics had not been forgotten.


Military aviation pioneer

Arnold immediately sent a letter requesting a transfer to the Signal Corps and on 21 April 1911, received Special Order 95, detailing him and 2nd Lt. Thomas DeWitt Milling of the 15th Cavalry, to
Dayton, Ohio Dayton () is a city in Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. It is the List of cities in Ohio, sixth-most populous city in Ohio, with a population of 137,644 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. The Dayton metro ...
, for a course in flight instruction at the
Wright brothers The Wright brothers, Orville Wright (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were American aviation List of aviation pioneers, pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flyin ...
' aviation school at Simms Station, Ohio. While individually instructed, they were part of the school's May 1911 class that included three civilians and Lieutenant John Rodgers of the
United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the naval warfare, maritime military branch, service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is the world's most powerful navy with the largest Displacement (ship), displacement, at 4.5 millio ...
. Beginning instruction on 3 May with Arthur L. Welsh, Arnold made his first solo flight May 13 after three hours and forty-eight minutes of flight in 28 lessons.Milling, instructed by Cliff Turpin, had already soloed on May 8 with two hours of flight time. He had attracted the attention of Orville Wright, who went up with him (but not Arnold) and approved the early solo. On 14 May, he and Milling completed their instruction. Arnold received Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) pilot certificate number 29 on 6 July 1911, and Military Aviator Certificate Number 2 a year later. He also was recognized by a general order in 1913 as one of the first 24 rated military aviators, authorized to wear the newly designed ''Military Aviator'' badge. After several more weeks of solo flying in Dayton to gain experience, Arnold and Milling were sent on 14 June to the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps station established at College Park, Maryland, to be the Army's first flight instructors. There Arnold set an altitude record of on 7 July and thrice broke it (18 August 1911, to ; 25 January 1912, to ; and 1 June 1912, ). In August 1911, he experienced his first crash, trying to take off from a farm field after getting lost. In September Arnold became the first U.S. pilot to carry mail, flying a bundle of letters five miles (8 km) on
Long Island Long Island is a densely populated continental island in southeastern New York (state), New York state, extending into the Atlantic Ocean. It constitutes a significant share of the New York metropolitan area in both population and land are ...
, New York, and he is credited as the first pilot to fly over the U.S. Capitol and the first to carry a
United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature, legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is a Bicameralism, bicameral legislature, including a Lower house, lower body, the United States House of Representatives, ...
man as a passenger. The following month, Arnold moonlighted as a pilot in the filming of two silent movies, doubling for the leads in '' The Military Air-Scout'' and
The Elopement
'. The flight school moved in November 1911 to a farm leased near Augusta,
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
, hoping to continue flying there during the winter. Training was limited by rain and flooding, and they returned to Maryland in May 1912. Arnold began to develop a phobia about flying, intensified by Al Welsh's fatal crash at College Park on 11 June.Also killed in the crash was 2d Lieutenant Leighton W. Hazelhurst Jr. In August Arnold was at Marblehead, Massachusetts, with 1st Lieutenant Roy C. Kirtland conducting acceptance tests of the Burgess Model H, an enclosed-fuselage tandem-seat
seaplane A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of takeoff, taking off and water landing, landing (alighting) on water.Gunston, "The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary", 2009. Seaplanes are usually divided into two categories based on their tech ...
and the Army's first tractor (front-mounted
propeller A propeller (often called a screw if on a ship or an airscrew if on an aircraft) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear thrust upon a working flu ...
and engine). The pair received orders to fly the new aircraft to
Bridgeport, Connecticut Bridgeport is the List of municipalities in Connecticut, most populous city in the U.S. state of Connecticut and the List of cities in New England by population, fifth-most populous city in New England, with a population of 148,654 in 2020. Loc ...
, to participate in maneuvers but high winds forced them to land on
Massachusetts Bay Massachusetts Bay is a bay on the Gulf of Maine that forms part of the central coastline of Massachusetts. Description The bay extends from Cape Ann on the north to Plymouth Harbor on the south, a distance of about . Its northern and sout ...
on 12 August. Attempting to take off again, Arnold caught a wing tip in the water turning into the wind and crashed into the bay off
Plymouth Plymouth ( ) is a port city status in the United Kingdom, city and unitary authority in Devon, South West England. It is located on Devon's south coast between the rivers River Plym, Plym and River Tamar, Tamar, about southwest of Exeter and ...
. Arnold suffered a lacerated chin during the mishap but the aircraft was salvaged and repaired. Another crash at College Park on September 18 killed 2nd Lieutenant Lewis Rockwell, an academy classmate of Arnold's. In October, Arnold and Milling were ordered to enter the competition for the first MacKay Trophy for "the most outstanding military flight of the year." Arnold won when he located a company of cavalry from the air and returned safely despite strong turbulence. As a result, he and Milling were sent to Fort Riley,
Kansas Kansas ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west. Kansas is named a ...
, to experiment with radio and other communications from the air with the
field artillery Field artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support army, armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, short range, long range, and extremely long range target engagement. Until the ear ...
. Arnold's flight on November 2 in Wright C Speed Scout S.C. Number 10, with 1st Lieutenant Follett Bradley as his wireless operator, successfully sent the first radio telegraph message, at a distance of , from an aircraft to a receiver on the ground, manned by 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne of the Signal Corps.Ironically, Arnold was stationed in the Philippines as an infantry officer two years later when Mauborgne went aloft himself with Arnold's close friend 2nd Lieutenant Bert Dargue, and made the first two-way communication from the air to the ground, a radio station on Corregidor on December 11, 1914. Three days later, Arnold flew on an artillery spotting exercise with 1st Lieutenant Alfred L.P. Sands of the 6th Field Artillery as an observer. Spiraling down to land in S.C. No. 10, the plane stalled, went into a spin, and they narrowly avoided a fatal crash.On February 9, 1914, Lieutenant Henry Post was flying this aircraft near San Diego in an attempt to establish an altitude record. As Post spiraled down below 600 feet, the aircraft went into a vertical dive similar to Arnold's and crashed into San Diego Bay, killing him. () He immediately grounded himself and applied for a leave of absence. Flying was considered so dangerous that no stigma was attached for refusing to fly, and his request was granted.Five of the Army's 14 aviators transferred out during 1913. During his leave of absence he renewed an acquaintance with Eleanor "Bee" Pool, the daughter of a banker, and one of his father's patients."Bee" was shortened from "Beetle" or "Beadle", a name given to her by her older brothers. Although Arnold often used "Beadle" in his letters to her, there is no dispute that she was habitually referred to as "Bee" by family and associates. On 1 December, Arnold took a staff assignment as assistant to the new head of the Aeronautical Division in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer in Washington, D.C. In the spring he was assigned the task of closing the flying school at College Park.The lease on the College Park property expired on June 30, and the Army made the decision to not renew it and instead move the school to San Diego, California. () Although promoted to 1st lieutenant on 10 April 1913, Arnold was unhappy and requested a transfer to the Philippines. While awaiting a response, he received orders to the 9th Infantry on 10 July. In August, still awaiting transfer, he testified before the House Military Affairs Committee against HR5304, a bill to remove aviation from the Signal Corps and make it a semi-autonomous "Air Corps." Arnold, like fellow flyer Captain Benjamin Foulois, argued that the action was premature, and like his Signal Corps boss, Major Edgar Russel (a non-flyer), that the Signal Corps was doing all that could be done to develop military use of the airplane. He was assigned to a company at Fort Thomas, Kentucky, on 1 September, where he was stationed until transferred to the 13th Infantry on 1 November.


Marriage and return to aviation

On 10 September 1913, he and Bee married, with Milling acting as his best man. Sent back to the Philippines in January 1914, he was quartered near 1st Lieutenant George C. Marshall, who became his mentor, friend and patron. Soon after their arrival Bee miscarried, but on 17 January 1915, their first child, Lois Elizabeth Arnold, was born at Fort William McKinley in
Manila Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the Capital of the Philippines, capital and second-most populous city of the Philippines after Quezon City, with a population of 1,846,513 people in 2020. Located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on ...
. After eight months of troop duty, Arnold became battalion adjutant.Arnold's interest in aeronautics continued despite his fear of flying. During this period he applied to the Army for enrollment in the aeronautical engineering course at MIT but was turned down. In January 1916, completing a two-year tour with the 13th Infantry, Arnold was attached to the 3rd Infantry and returned to the United States. En route to Madison Barracks, New York, he exchanged telegrams from Hawaii with an assistant executive of the Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Major William "Billy" Mitchell, who alerted him that he was being detailed to the Signal Corps again, as a first lieutenant if he chose non-flying status. However, if he volunteered to requalify for a rating of ''Junior Military Aviator'', a temporary promotion to captain was mandated by law.The Aviation Section was in the midst of a turbulent leadership crisis, amounting almost to mutiny, and Mitchell was seeking mature, stable officers to lend it tone. Although the law establishing the Aviation Section in 1914 prohibited married officers and those over the age of 30 from being pilots, both provisions affecting Arnold, a bill rescinding the restrictions was then making its way through Congress. (Hennessy 1958, p. 155) On 20 May 1916, Arnold reported to Rockwell Field,
California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
, on flying status but as supply officer at the Signal Corps Aviation School. He received a permanent establishment promotion to captain, Infantry, on 23 September. Between October and December 1916, encouraged by former associates, Arnold overcame his
fear of flying Fear of flying is the fear of being on an aircraft, such as an airplane or helicopter, while it is in flight. It is also referred to as flying anxiety, flying phobia, flight phobia, aviophobia, aerophobia, or pteromerhanophobia (although aero ...
by going up fifteen to twenty minutes a day in a Curtiss JN trainer, a much safer aircraft with a simpler flight control system than the Speed Scout of just four years' before. On 26 November, he flew solo, and on 16 December qualified again for his JMA.The 1914 Aviation Section law had also reduced all rated officers to JMA, not just Arnold, because of a provision requiring three years as a JMA before becoming eligible for an MA rating. Before he could be reassigned to flying duties, however, he was involved as a witness in a controversial service dispute in January 1917. Over the objections of Captain Herbert A. Dargue, the Aviation School's director of training, and with Arnold present, Captain Frank P. Lahm, the school secretary (adjutant), authorized on 6 January an excursion flight for a non-aviator that took place on 10 January, again over Dargue's protests, resulting in the loss of the airplane in Mexico and the disappearance of the crew for nine days. After testifying to army investigators on 27 January, confirming that Lahm had authorized the flight in writing, Arnold was sent to Panama on 30 January 1917, one day after the birth of his second child, Henry H. Arnold Jr.The school commandant, Colonel William A. Glassford, publicly asserted that the flight was unauthorized, based on Lahm's denials, but Arnold told investigators that he saw the authorization signed by Lahm, the source of Glassford's apparent retribution against him. Another interpretation of the facts, however, comes from Huston, who attributes the dispute to Arnold's perceived insubordination in participating in an immediate air search for the missing aviators after Lahm and Glassford had issued orders not to do so. Glassford's final fitness report on Arnold characterized him as "not suited for an independent command" and "a trouble maker." According to Huston, Arnold's transfer to Panama was ordered in December 1916 and was actually delayed when he had to remain at Rockwell to give a statement to investigators. Hennessy (page 192) states that the Panama orders were issued January 9, the day before the missing flight. However, Coffey's conclusions are those of Arnold himself, including the allegation that in compliance with the orders that no search be conducted, none occurred for six days, causing a near mutiny among the pilots including Arnold, a fact confirmed in newspaper accounts of the day. Hennessy attributes the delay "at least in part" to multiple rumors and sightings that allegedly had to be cleared up first, but does confirm that more than 30 operational aircraft sat idle at the school for six days, and that when a search was finally begun on January, only one plane took part, flown by Dargue. Neither historian acknowledges that the United States government was at the time trying to extract itself from the embarrassing Punitive Expedition without further international incident, which was ordered on January 18. Huston's cited source also confuses the 1917 search with a similar one ordered by Arnold in 1922 in which an immediate search did take place, making Huston's interpretation dubious. Glassford, like most of the senior leaders in aviation, was a non-pilot with a prior association in ballooning. He reached the mandatory retirement age of 64 in April 1917 and despite war having just been declared, did not receive a waiver but was placed on the retired list. Lahm was relieved of duties at the school and sent to the balloon school in Omaha, not returning to duties involving airplanes until June 1918. In November 1941, when Arnold was chief the Army Air Forces, Lahm reached mandatory retirement age and his subsequent request to return to duty just days later, when the United States entered World War II, was similarly rejected. The issue of improperly awarded flying pay, which had given the Army a public black eye only a year before, also became part of the controversy when as the result of the flight, the student involved, field artillery officer Lieutenant Colonel Harry G. Bishop (who was one of four senior officers being groomed as future executives in the Aviation Section), was revealed to have received the pay to which he was not entitled as a student without flying duties. Of the four, he was the only one who subsequently was not assigned to aviation. (Hennessy, p. 191) Arnold collected the men who would make up his first command, the 7th Aero Squadron, in New York City on 5 February 1917, and was ordered to find a suitable location for an airfield in the
Panama Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone (), also known as just the Canal Zone, was a International zone#Concessions, concession of the United States located in the Isthmus of Panama that existed from 1903 to 1979. It consisted of the Panama Canal and an area gene ...
. When the military in Panama could not agree on a site, Arnold was ordered back to Washington, D.C., to resolve the dispute and was en route by ship when the United States declared war on Germany. Arnold requested to be sent to France, but his presence in Washington worked against him, since the Aviation Section needed qualified officers for headquarters duty. Beginning 1 May 1917, he received a series of assignments, as officer in charge of the Information Division,"Information" in the World War I era meant the same as "
military intelligence Military intelligence is a military discipline that uses information collection and analysis List of intelligence gathering disciplines, approaches to provide guidance and direction to assist Commanding officer, commanders in decision making pr ...
" in modern usage.
with a promotion to
major Major most commonly refers to: * Major (rank), a military rank * Academic major, an academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits * People named Major, including given names, surnames, nicknames * Major and minor in musi ...
on 27 June, as assistant executive officer of the Aeronautical Division, and then as executive officer after it became the Air Division on 1 October. On 5 August 1917, he was promoted again, becoming the youngest full
colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
in the Army.Nine days later, Walter G. "Mike" Kilner, chief, Training Section, Air Service of the AEF, took that distinction from Arnold, becoming a full colonel at the age of 30 years, one month, and six days. The youngest colonel of the Air Service during the war was Edgar S. Gorrell, chief of staff, Air Service AEF, on October 28, 1918, at the age of 27 years, eight months, and 25 days. Arnold gained experience in aircraft production and procurement, the construction of air schools and airfields, and the recruitment and training of large numbers of personnel; and learned political in-fighting in the Washington environment, all of which would help him as head of the military's air services. When the Division of Military Aeronautics superseded the Air Division in April 1918, Arnold continued as executive assistant to its director, Major General William Kenly, and advanced to assistant director when the DMA was removed from the Signal Corps in May 1918.Arnold again received an unsatisfactory fitness report, as Chief Signal Officer George O. Squier placed much of the blame on him for the failures of the Signal Corps Aviation Section, which cost Squier control of the air service, describing Arnold as "inclined to be disloyal". Arnold's subsequent boss, Gen. Kenley, saw things differently and recommended Arnold for a Distinguished Service Medal, although the Squier fitness report quashed it. Arnold's third child, William Bruce Arnold, was born 17 July 1918. Shortly after, Arnold arranged to go to France to brief General John Pershing, commanding the
American Expeditionary Force The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was a formation of the United States Armed Forces on the Western Front (World War I), Western Front during World War I, composed mostly of units from the United States Army, U.S. Army. The AEF was establis ...
, on the Kettering Bug, a weapons development. Aboard a ship to France in late October he developed Spanish influenza and was hospitalized on his arrival in England. He did reach the front on 11 November 1918, but the
Armistice An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, as it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace. It is derived from t ...
ended the war on the same day.


Between the wars


Acolyte of Billy Mitchell

The Air Service separated from the Signal Corps on 20 May 1918. However control of aviation remained with the ground forces when its post-war director was a
field artillery Field artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support army, armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, short range, long range, and extremely long range target engagement. Until the ear ...
general, Major General Charles T. Menoher, who epitomized the view of the War Department
General Staff A military staff or general staff (also referred to as army staff, navy staff, or air staff within the individual services) is a group of officers, Enlisted rank, enlisted, and civilian staff who serve the commanding officer, commander of a ...
that "military aviation can never be anything other than simply an arm of the (Army)". Menoher was followed in 1921 by another non-aviator, Maj.Gen. Mason M. Patrick. Patrick, however, obtained a rating of Junior Airplane Pilot despite being 59 years old and became both an airpower advocate and a proponent of an independent air force. Both Menoher and Patrick clashed often with Assistant Chief of Air Service Billy Mitchell, who had become radical in his desire for a single unified Air Force to control and develop all military airpower. Arnold supported Mitchell's highly publicized views, the consequence of which was a mutual dislike with Patrick. Arnold was sent to Rockwell Field on 10 January 1919, as District Supervisor, Western District of the Air Service, to oversee the demobilization of 8,000 airmen and surplus aircraft. There he first established relationships with the men who became his main aides, executive officer Captain Carl A. Spaatz and adjutant 1st Lieutenant Ira C. Eaker. Five months later Arnold became Air Officer of the Western Department (after June 1920 the Ninth Corps Area) in San Francisco and ''de facto'' commander of Crissy Field, being developed on a site determined by a board chaired by Arnold. Arnold's promotion to colonel expired 30 June 1920, and he reverted to his permanent establishment rank of captain. Even though he received an automatic promotion to major because of his Military Aviator rating, he became junior to officers serving under him, including Spaatz, whose promotion received while in France was not rescinded.Spaatz resolved the "problem" by going to Western Department commanding general Hunter Liggett and having himself transferred to Mather Field. () On 11 August 1920, Arnold was one of 21 Infantry majors formally transferred to the Air Service by War Department Special Orders No. 188-0.Major Benjamin D. Foulois was also transferred on this date from the Signal Corps, (''Air Service News Letter'', Vol. IV No. 35, September 20, 1920) As Air Service Officer of the Ninth Corps area, he oversaw the first regular aerial patrols over the forested lands of California and Oregon to assist in preventing and suppressing wildfires. (This service marked the first use of aircraft for wildfire suppression, prior to the modern use of water dropping aircraft.) Of Arnold, the
National Park Service The National Park Service (NPS) is an List of federal agencies in the United States, agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government, within the US Department of the Interior. The service manages all List ...
history of Crissy Field wrote: "During his tour of duty, Arnold had been instrumental both in bringing Crissy Field into existence, and establishing the pattern of its operations." In October 1922 he was sent back to Rockwell, now a service depot, as base commander and there encouraged an
aerial refueling Aerial refueling ( en-us), or aerial refuelling ( en-gb), also referred to as air refueling, in-flight refueling (IFR), air-to-air refueling (AAR), and tanking, is the process of transferring aviation fuel from one aircraft (the tanker) to an ...
, the first in history, that took place eight months later. Arnold experienced several serious illnesses and accidents requiring hospitalization, including recurring stomach ulcers and the amputation of three fingertips on his left hand in 1922.Ironically, the accident involving his fingers occurred during a visit by his father, a physician, who reattached the fingertips. His wife and sons also experienced serious health problems, including a near fatal case of scarlet fever for son Bruce. His fourth child, John Linton Arnold, born in the summer of 1921, died on 30 June 1923, of acute
appendicitis Appendicitis is inflammation of the Appendix (anatomy), appendix. Symptoms commonly include right lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever and anorexia (symptom), decreased appetite. However, approximately 40% of people do not have these t ...
. Both Arnold and wife Bee needed almost a year to recover psychologically from the loss. In August 1924, Arnold was unexpectedly assigned to attend a five-month course of study at the Army Industrial College. After completing the course he was hand-picked by Patrick, despite their mutual dislike, to head the Air Service's Information Division, working closely with Mitchell. When Mitchell was
court-martial A court-martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the arme ...
ed, Arnold, Spaatz, and Eaker were all warned that they were jeopardizing their careers by vocally supporting Mitchell, but they testified on his behalf anyway. After Mitchell was convicted on 17 December 1925, his supporters including Arnold continued to use Information Division resources to promote his views to airpower-friendly congressmen and Air Service reservists. In February,
Secretary of War The secretary of war was a member of the U.S. president's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War", had been appointed to serve the Congress of the ...
Dwight F. Davis ordered Patrick to find and discipline the culprits. Patrick was already aware of the activity and chose Arnold to set an example. He gave Arnold the choice of resignation or a general court-martial, but when Arnold chose the latter, Patrick decided to avoid another public fiasco and instead transferred him to Ft. Riley, far from the aviation mainstream, where he took command of the 16th Observation Squadron on 22 March 1926.As commanding officer of the 16th O.S., Arnold was "dual-hatted" as Aviation Officer to the inactive 7th Division (demonstration unit for the Cavalry School) until August 15, 1927, and the Aviation Officer of the 2nd Cavalry Division until August 1, 1928. () Patrick's press release on the investigation stated that Arnold was also reprimanded for violating Army General Order No. 20 by attempting "to influence legislation in an improper manner."The activity of which Patrick had actual knowledge and for which he disciplined Arnold had nothing to do with use of official resources to promote Mitchell's views. Patrick himself had encouraged Arnold to lobby for support of Patrick's version of the pending Air Corps Act. The mailing for which Patrick attempted to cashier Arnold was to all Reserve pilots encouraging them to contact their congressmen to support Patrick's version of the bill, and this embarrassing circumstance led the Chief of the Air Service to back down when Arnold called his bluff. (Davis, page 13) Despite this setback, which included a fitness report that stated "in an emergency he is liable to lose his head", Arnold made a commitment to remain in the service, turning down an offer of the presidency of the soon-to-be operating Pan American Airways, which he had helped bring into being.The offer came from naval aviation pioneer John K. Montgomery at the end of July 1927, when Arnold was already eligible for retirement at half-pay. Montgomery was president of American International Airways, a firm he had founded with financing originally intended to create Pan Am for Arnold. AIA's landing rights in Cuba had been transferred to Juan Trippe, putting together the companies (including AIA) that would become Pan Am in June 1928. Arnold made the best of his exile and in May 1927, his participation in war games at Fort Sam Houston,
Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
, impressed Major General James E. Fechet, successor to Patrick as Chief of the U.S. Army Air Corps. He also received outstanding fitness reports from his commanders at Ft. Riley, Brigadier General Ewing E. Booth (who had been a member of the Mitchell court) and his successor, Brig. Gen. Charles J. Symmonds. Repairs to Arnold's service reputation may also have been aided by a professional article he wrote for the ''Cavalry Journal'' in January 1928, showing the influence of his association with the Cavalry School at Fort Riley. Arnold urged a strong combined arms team be developed between the Air Corps and the Cavalry; and by extension, all ground forces. This opportunity for development of the concept in both theory and practice was lost however, by the effects of cultural differences between the two service branches and the dominance of American isolationism. It did not develop until the United States was engaged in World War II. On 24 February 1927, his son David Lee Arnold was born at Ft. Riley. In 1928 Arnold wrote and published six books of juvenile fiction, the "Bill Bruce Series," whose objective was to interest young people in flying.The books were titled ''Bill Bruce and the Pioneer Aviators''; ''Bill Bruce, The Flying Cadet''; ''Bill Bruce Becomes an Ace''; ''Bill Bruce on Border Patrol''; ''Bill Bruce in the Transcontinental Race'' and ''Bill Bruce on Forest Patrol'' (New York: A. L. Burt, 1928).


Air Corps mid-career

Fechet intervened with Army Chief of Staff Gen. Charles P. Summerall to have Arnold's exile ended by assigning him in August 1928 to the Army's
Command and General Staff School The United States Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC or, obsolete, USACGSC) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, is a graduate school for United States Army and sister service officers, interagency representatives, and international military ...
at
Fort Leavenworth Fort Leavenworth () is a United States Army installation located in Leavenworth County, Kansas, in the city of Leavenworth, Kansas, Leavenworth. Built in 1827, it is the second oldest active United States Army post west of Washington, D.C., an ...
.Summerall had been Arnold's mathematics instructor at West Point. The year-long course was unpleasant for Arnold because of doctrinal differences with the school's commandant, Major General Edward L. King, but Arnold graduated with high marks in June 1929.King had also been on the court that tried Billy Mitchell. Arnold was slated for assignment to the Air Corps Training Center in San Antonio following graduation, but Brigadier General Lahm, the commander of the ACTC, strongly opposed it, possibly recalling their 1917 dispute. Instead Arnold commanded the Fairfield Air Service Depot, Ohio. In 1930 he also became Chief of the Field Service Section, Air Corps Materiel Division, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 February 1931. Arnold's parents were made destitute by the bank collapses in 1929, and on 18 January 1931, his mother died of a sudden heart attack. Arnold struggled emotionally with being absent from his parents' 50th wedding anniversary celebration the year before and with the depression afflicting his father after her death. A contemporary biographer of Arnold notes that not until after his mother's funeral did Bee begin use of the sobriquet "Hap" in place of "Sunny" when addressing him, apparently to avoid the "constant reminder" of his mother that the latter name might bring. Arnold himself eschewed the use of "Sunny" in his personal correspondence after May 1931, signing himself as "Hap" Arnold from that point forward. Arnold took command of March Field,
California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
, where Spaatz had just assumed command of the grandiose-sounding but tiny 1st Wing, on November 27, 1931. Arnold's responsibilities included refurbishing the base into a showcase installation, which required that he resolve strained relations with the community. He accomplished this by having his officers join local social service organizations and by a series of well-publicized relief efforts. Arnold took command of the 1st Wing himself on 4 January 1933, which flew food-drops during blizzards in the winter of 1932–33, assisted in relief work during the Long Beach earthquake of 10 March 1933, and established camps for 3,000 boys of the
Civilian Conservation Corps The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a voluntary government unemployment, work relief program that ran from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men ages 18–25 and eventually expanded to ages 17–28. The CCC was ...
. He organized a high-profile series of aerial reviews that featured visits from Hollywood celebrities and aviation notables.Arnold became close friends with
Jack L. Warner Jack Leonard Warner (born Jacob Warner; August 2, 1892 – September 9, 1978) was a Canadian-born American film executive, who was the president and driving force behind the Warner Bros., Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. Warner's ca ...
and Donald Douglas, and began cultivating a relationship with the California Institute of Technology.
In August 1932, Arnold began acquisition of portions of Rogers Dry Lake as a bombing and gunnery range for his units, a site that later became
Edwards Air Force Base Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) is a United States Air Force installation in California. Most of the base sits in Kern County, California, Kern County, but its eastern end is in San Bernardino County, California, San Bernardino County and a souther ...
. In 1934, Chief of Air Corps Benjamin D. Foulois named Arnold to command one of the three military zones of the controversial Army Air Corps Mail Operation, with a temporary headquarters in
Salt Lake City, Utah Salt Lake City, often shortened to Salt Lake or SLC, is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of cities and towns in Utah, most populous city of the U.S. state of Utah. It is the county seat of Salt Lake County, Utah, Salt ...
. Arnold's pilots performed well and his own reputation was untouched by the fiasco. Later that same year he won his second Mackay Trophy, when he led ten Martin B-10B bombers on an flight from Bolling Field to
Fairbanks, Alaska Fairbanks is a Municipal home rule, home rule city and the county seat, borough seat of the Fairbanks North Star Borough, Alaska, United States. Fairbanks is the largest city in the Interior Alaska, interior region of Alaska and the second la ...
, and back.Publicity of the flight was the first major step taken to repair the image of the Air Corps caused by the Air Mail fiasco. The flight was the second major air expedition to Alaska. The first, covering the 8,690 miles between Mitchel Field, New York, and Nome, was flown between July 15 and October 20, 1920, in four DH-4s led by Captain St. Clair Streett, for which they too earned the Mackay Trophy. Overly credited with its success, he nonetheless lobbied for recognition of the other airmen who took part, but the deputy chief of staff ignored his recommendations. His reputation among some of his peers was tarnished by resentment when he was belatedly awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for the flight in 1937.Major General Hugh A. Drum, a key member of the General Staff in its clashes with the Air Corps, ignored Arnold's recommendations. On 1 March 1935, General Headquarters Air Force was activated to control all combat aviation units of the Air Corps based in the United States, although it was not subordinate to the Chief of Air Corps. While a significant step towards an independent air force, this dual authority created serious problems of unity of command for the next six years. GHQAF commander Major General Frank Andrews tapped Arnold to retain command of its 1st Wing, which now carried with it a temporary promotion to the rank of brigadier general, effective 2 March 1935. On 23 December 1935, new Army Chief of Staff General Malin Craig summoned Arnold to Washington. He and Arnold had become personal friends and
golf Golf is a club-and-ball sport in which players use various Golf club, clubs to hit a Golf ball, ball into a series of holes on a golf course, course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not use a standa ...
ing partners during Craig's command of the Ninth Corps Area in 1933. Foulois had retired under fire in the wake of the Air Mail scandal and allegations of corruption in Air Corps procurement, and the new chief, Major General Oscar Westover, had asked Craig for Arnold to fill the vacant assistant chief position. Over Arnold's protests, and despite a left-handed recommendation by Secretary of War George Dern,Dern favored Lieutenant Colonel "Mike" Kilner, the officer who in World War I had been the Army's youngest full colonel. Calling Arnold's record "spotted," Dern nevertheless recommended him to Craig. who recalled Arnold's close association with Billy Mitchell, Craig made him Assistant Chief of Air Corps, responsible for procurement and supply, to deal with the political struggles over them from the Foulois years. In effect, however, Arnold had "switched sides" in the struggle between GHQ Air Force and the Air Corps.


Chief of Air Corps

Westover was killed in an air crash at
Burbank, California Burbank is a city in the southeastern end of the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles County, California, United States. Located northwest of downtown Los Angeles, Burbank had a Census-estimated population of 102,755 as of 2023. The city was ...
, on 21 September 1938. Prior vacancies in the office had been filled by an incumbent assistant chief, and Arnold's appointment to succeed Westover seemed automatic since he was well qualified. Yet the appointment was delayed when a faction developed supporting the appointment of Andrews that included two members of the
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...
staff, press secretary Stephen Early and military adviser Colonel Edwin M. Watson. A rumor circulated through the White House that Arnold was a "drunkard". In his memoirs, Arnold recorded that he enlisted the help of Harry Hopkins to attack the drinking rumors, but more recent research asserts that Craig threatened to resign as Army chief of staff if Arnold was not appointed.Although having a known fondness for White Horse Scotch whisky, especially when mixed as an Old Fashioned cocktail, Arnold's intake had been sharply curtailed since the early 1920s by stomach ulcers. () Steve Early's disdain stemmed from assignment in 1926 as Washington correspondent for the
Associated Press The Associated Press (AP) is an American not-for-profit organization, not-for-profit news agency headquartered in New York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association, and produces news reports that are dist ...
during Arnold's problems with Patrick, while "Pa" Watson held a personal dislike of Arnold and had been a West Point classmate of Andrews.
President
Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), also known as FDR, was the 32nd president of the United States, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. He is the longest-serving U.S. president, and the only one to have served ...
appointed Arnold as Chief of Air Corps on 29 September, which carried with it the rank of major general. To repair his relationship with the Andrews faction, most of whom were part of GHQ Air Force, he selected its chief of staff, Colonel Walter G. Kilner, to fill the Assistant Chief of Air Corps vacancy.Unfortunately, Kilner was compelled to take a medical retirement less than a year later due to a previously undiagnosed heart condition, which apparently so distressed him that he committed suicide in 1940. Andrews' candidacy for the Air Corps chief position was led by his chief of staff, Colonel Hugh J. Knerr, who had been Arnold's executive officer on the Alaska flight. The DFC for Arnold, coming at a time when his support for the B-17 had become lukewarm, embittered Knerr, who continued his efforts to unseat Arnold until Andrews' death in 1943. Andrews himself took no part in the controversy. Although his relationship with Arnold remained cordial, Andrews was not reappointed as commander of GHQAF when his term expired in March 1939 and Knerr was coerced to retire at the same time. However when Andrews asked Arnold to return Knerr to active duty in 1941, Arnold agreed and later recommended him to head the VIII Service Command in England. After
Charles Lindbergh Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974) was an American aviator, military officer, and author. On May 20–21, 1927, he made the first nonstop flight from New York (state), New York to Paris, a distance of . His aircra ...
publicly lent his support in April 1939 for production of a very long range bomber in large numbers to counter Nazi production, development of which had been prohibited since June 1938 by the Secretary of War, Arnold appointed Kilner to head a board to make appropriate recommendations to end the R&D moratorium.Development of such a bomber required five years at minimum, of which Arnold was well aware. Known as the "Project A" bomber (with a tactical radius of at least 2,000 miles), Kilner's board resulted in the end of the R&D moratorium in August 1939 and a request from Arnold in November that the project be approved. Both the B-32 Dominator and the B-29 resulted from this critical policy reversal, with the B-32 ironically being the first to fly. Arnold encouraged
research and development Research and development (R&D or R+D), known in some countries as OKB, experiment and design, is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products. R&D constitutes the first stage ...
efforts, among his projects the B-17 and the concept of Jet-assisted takeoff. To encourage the use of civilian expertise, the California Institute of Technology became a beneficiary of Air Corps funding and Theodore von Kármán of its Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory developed a good working relationship with Arnold that led to the creation of the Scientific Advisory Group in 1944. Arnold characterized his wartime philosophy of research and development as: "Sacrifice some quality to get sufficient quantity to supply all fighting units. Never follow the mirage, looking for the perfect airplane, to a point where fighting squadrons are deficient in numbers of fighting planes." To that end he concentrated on rapid returns from R&D investments, exploiting proven technologies to provide operational solutions to counter the rising threat of the Axis Powers. Arnold also pushed for jet propulsion, especially after the British shared their plans of Whittle's turbojet during his visit to Britain in April 1941. The proposal was immediately opposed by the General Staff in all respects. He and Eaker collaborated on three books promoting airpower: ''This Flying Game'' (1936, reprinted 1943), ''Winged Victory'' (1941), and ''Army Flyer'' (1942). In March 1939 Arnold was appointed to head the Air Board by Secretary of War Harry Woodring, to recommend doctrine and organization of Army airpower to the chief of staff. While the board's report concluded that airpower was indispensable to the defense of the hemisphere, stressed the need for long-range bombers, and became the basis for the first Air Corps field manual, it was a "considerable attenuation" of the doctrine being developed at the Air Corps Tactical School. Arnold submitted the findings to George C. Marshall, newly appointed as chief of staff, on 1 September 1939, the day
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
invaded
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
. When Marshall requested a reorganization study from the Air Corps, Arnold submitted a proposal on 5 October 1940, that would create an air staff, unify the air arm under one commander, and grant it autonomy with the ground and supply forces. Congress repealed the Neutrality Act in November 1939 to permit the selling of aircraft to the belligerents, causing Arnold concern that shipments of planes to the Allies would slow delivery to the Air Corps, particularly since control of the allotment of aircraft production had been given to the Procurement Division of the Treasury Department in December 1938, and by extension, to Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr., a White House favorite. Arnold experienced two years of difficulties with Morgenthau, who was prone to denigrate the leadership of the War Department and Air Corps.Arnold got himself into the president's doghouse early. In January 1939, his pique over '' sub rosa'' negotiations between the French, Morgenthau and the U.S. Navy over an Air Corps project (the Douglas DB-7 bomber), conducted without Air Corps knowledge, led him to ill-advised public criticism of the administration before Congress after the prototype crashed during flight testing with a French Air Force observer on board. Their conflict peaked on 12 March 1940, when Arnold's public complaint about increases in shipmentsRoosevelt had decided that all production from new aircraft plants would go to the British, with the result that while the British acquired nearly 2,000 new aircraft by mid-1941, the Air Corps received only 1,000 in the same period. Arnold protested loudly, claiming that the lack of aircraft needed to train itself during its expansion would "cripple the Army Air Corps." (Perret 1997, pages 44–45) brought a personal warning from Roosevelt that "there were places to which officers who did not 'play ball' might be sent, such as
Guam Guam ( ; ) is an island that is an Territories of the United States, organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. Guam's capital is Hagåtña, Guam, Hagåtña, and the most ...
," and got him banished from the
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...
for eight months.Secretary Morgenthau's control of aircraft production declined after January 1941 when Harry Hopkins became Roosevelt's closest confidant. Another indication of Arnold's disfavor with the president was that his promotion to permanent brigadier general was delayed until December 1940, which placed him fourth in seniority among those promoted from the Air Corps, behind H. Conger Pratt, Andrews, and James E. Chaney. The disfavor shown Arnold by Roosevelt reached a turning point in March 1941 when new Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, a supporter of Arnold, submitted his name with two others for promotion to the permanent rank of major general.The other two nominees were Courtney H. Hodges as Chief of Infantry, and William N. Porter as Chief of
Chemical Warfare Service The Chemical Corps is the branch of the United States Army tasked with defending against and using chemical weapon, chemical, biological agent, biological, radiological weapon, radiological, and nuclear weapon, nuclear (Chemical, biological, r ...
.
Roosevelt refused to send the list to the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
for
confirmation In Christian denominations that practice infant baptism, confirmation is seen as the sealing of the covenant (religion), covenant created in baptism. Those being confirmed are known as confirmands. The ceremony typically involves laying on o ...
because of Arnold's nomination, and his forced retirement from the service seemed imminent to both Stimson and Marshall. Stimson and Harry Hopkins arranged for Arnold, accompanied by Major Elwood "Pete" Quesada, to travel to England for three weeks in April to evaluate British aircraft production needs and to provide an up-to-date strategic analysis.At the time of the trip to Britain, Quesada was chief of the Foreign Language Section, Intelligence Division. One outcome of the visit was the setting up of a program for training British pilots in the US, which subsequently became known as the Arnold Scheme. Arnold's meeting with Roosevelt to report his findings was judged as impressively cogent and optimistic, but the president ruminated on Arnold's future for three weeks before submitting his name and the others to the Senate. From that point on, however, Arnold's "position in the White House was secure."Arnold's promotion to permanent major general was approved by the Senate with "date of effect" retroactive to February 2, 1941, preceding that of Pratt by a month and making Arnold first in seniority within the Air Corps. His importance to Roosevelt in setting an airpower agenda was demonstrated when Arnold was invited to the Atlantic Conference in
Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region of Labrador, having a total size of . As of 2025 the population ...
in August, the first of seven such summits that he, not Morgenthau, would attend.The conference also saw one of the first instances of Arnold's legendary propensity to relieve from command a subordinate who displeased him. The newly appointed commander of the Newfoundland Base Command, Brigadier General Henry W. "Swede" Harms, so irritated Arnold with petty complaints and excuses that Arnold had him relieved of command, reduced to his permanent grade of colonel, and sent to Pendleton AAF, Oregon, an Air Service Command base, where he became base commander. Harms had been the Army's 37th pilot and an airman since 1915, and the relief spelled the end of his career. He passed through a series of "backwater" billets, the last of which was command of the 21st Bombardment Wing in Kansas, a personnel processing organization that had become a dumping ground for out-of-favor senior officers, before dying in June 1945 at the age of 57. ()


World War II


Reorganization, autonomy, and strategic plans

The division of authority between the Air Corps and the GHQ Air Force was removed with promulgation of Army Regulation 95–5, creating the
United States Army Air Forces The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF or AAF) was the major land-based aerial warfare service component of the United States Army and ''de facto'' aerial warfare service branch of the United States during and immediately after World War II ...
on 20 June 1941, only two days before Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union. Arnold became Chief of the Army Air Forces and acting "Deputy Chief of Staff for Air" with authority over both the Air Corps and Air Force Combat Command (successor to GHQAF). While this provided the air arm with a staff of its own and brought the entire organization under the command of one general, it failed to grant the degree of autonomy sought. By consensus between Marshall and Arnold, debate on separation of the Air Force into a service co-equal with the Army and Navy was postponed until after the war. In July Roosevelt asked for production requirements to defeat potential enemies, and Arnold endorsed a request by his new Air War Plans Division to submit an air war plan. The assessment, designated AWPD/1, defined four tasks for the AAF: defense of the Western Hemisphere, an initial defensive strategy against Japan, a strategic air offensive against Germany, and a later strategic air offensive against Japan in prelude of invasion. It also planned for an expansion of the AAF to 60,000 aircraft and 2.1 million men. AWPD/1 called for 24 groups (approximately 750 airplanes) of very long range
B-29 The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a retired American four-engined Propeller (aeronautics), propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to ...
bombers to be based in
Northern Ireland Northern Ireland ( ; ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been #Descriptions, variously described as a country, province or region. Northern Ireland shares Repub ...
and Egypt for use against Nazi Germany, and for production of sufficient Consolidated B-36s for intercontinental bombing missions of Germany. Soon after U.S. entry in the war, Arnold was promoted to
lieutenant general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was norma ...
on 15 December 1941. On 9 March 1942, after the creation of the AAF failed to define clear channels of authority for the air forces, the Army adopted the functional reorganization that Arnold had advocated in October 1940. Acting on an
executive order In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the ...
from Roosevelt, the War Department granted the AAF full autonomy, equal to and entirely separate from the Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply. The Air Force Combat Command and the Office of the Chief of Air Corps were abolished, and Arnold became AAF Commanding General and an ''
ex officio An ''ex officio'' member is a member of a body (notably a board, committee, or council) who is part of it by virtue of holding another office. The term '' ex officio'' is Latin, meaning literally 'from the office', and the sense intended is 'by r ...
'' member of both the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combined Chiefs of Staff. In response to an August 1942 directive, Arnold had the AWPD revise its estimates. AWPD/42 resulted, calling for 75,000 aircraft and 2.7 million men, and increased the production of aircraft for use by other allies. AWPD/42 reaffirmed earlier strategic priorities, but increased the list of industrial targets from 23 to 177, ranking the German
Luftwaffe The Luftwaffe () was the aerial warfare, aerial-warfare branch of the before and during World War II. German Empire, Germany's military air arms during World War I, the of the Imperial German Army, Imperial Army and the of the Imperial Ge ...
first and its
submarine A submarine (often shortened to sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. (It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability.) The term "submarine" is also sometimes used historically or infor ...
force second in importance of destruction. It also directed that the
B-29 The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a retired American four-engined Propeller (aeronautics), propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to ...
bomber not be employed in Europe because of problems in its development, but instead that the B-29 program's deployment be concentrated in the
Far East The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North Asia, North, East Asia, East and Southeast Asia. South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term. In mod ...
to destroy Japanese military power and combustible cities. Arnold was responsible for approving the Army Air Forces Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD). It was approved by 14 September 1942, and directed by aviator Jacqueline Cochran.


Strategic bombing in Europe

Immediately after the attack on
Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Reci ...
Arnold began to carry out AWPD/1. The primary strategic bombing force against Nazi Germany would be the Eighth Air Force, and he named Spaatz to command it and Eaker to head its Bomber Command. Other Arnold protégés eventually filled key positions in the strategic bombing forces, including Haywood S. Hansell, Laurence S. Kuter, and James H. Doolittle. Despite protecting his strategic bombing force from demands of other services and allies, Arnold was forced to divert resources from the Eighth to support operations in North Africa, crippling the Eighth in its infancy and nearly killing it. Eaker (now Eighth Air Force commander) found from experience that the pre-war doctrine of daylight precision bombing, developed at the Air Corps Tactical School as a foundation for separating the Air Force from the Army, was mistaken in its tenet that heavily armed bombers could reach any target without the support of long-range escort fighters. Early in 1943 he began requesting more fighters and jettisonable fuel tanks to increase their range, in addition to repeated requests to increase the size of his small bombing force. Heavy losses in the summer and fall of 1943 on deep penetration missions intensified Eaker's requests. Arnold, under pressure and impatient for results, ignored Eaker's findings and placed the blame on a lack of aggressiveness by bomber commanders. This came at a time when General Dwight D. Eisenhower was putting together his command group for the invasion of Europe, and Arnold approved Eisenhower's request to replace Eaker with his own commanders, Spaatz and Doolittle. The change in command at Eighth Air Force, particularly involving the relief of a friend or protégé, was just one of many that exemplified a ruthlessness Arnold developed to get results. In 1942, Brigadier General Walter R. Weaver, acting chief of the Air Corps, had his job eliminated and was relegated to a technical training command. George C. Kenney relieved Jacob E. Fickel in command of
Fourth Air Force The Fourth Air Force (4 AF) is a numbered air force of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC). It is headquartered at March Air Reserve Base, California. 4 AF directs the activities and supervises the training of more than 30,000 Air Force Reserv ...
Arnold had known Fickel since they were lieutenants together in the 29th and 13th Infantry Regiments in the Philippines. and later that same year replaced former Chief of the Air Corps George H. Brett as Southwest Pacific air commander. In the B-29 campaign, Curtis E. LeMay relieved Kenneth B. Wolfe in India in July 1944,The wing commander of the 58th Bomb Wing acted as interim commander until LeMay's arrival at the end of August. and later Hansell on Guam in January 1945.Arnold demonstrated that he had learned political savvy from his experiences with FDR when soon after sacking "Swede" Harms he relieved Brigadier General "Sue" Clagett from command of the Philippine Department Air Force. Instead of choosing the replacement himself, he allowed the imperious Douglas MacArthur to select it from a choice of three candidates. Ironically, Fickel was also one of the candidates and was himself relieved from command six months after not being selected.


B-29 operations against Japan

With the strategic bombing crisis resolved in Europe, Arnold placed full emphasis on completion of the development and deployment of the
B-29 The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a retired American four-engined Propeller (aeronautics), propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to ...
Very Long Range (VLR) bomber to attack Japan. As early as 1942, Arnold planned to make himself commanding general of the Twentieth Air Force. This unique command arrangement may also have contributed to his health problems (see below), but after the negative experiences of building an effective bombing force against Germany, and realizing the consequences of failure against Japan, Arnold concluded that, absent any unity of command in the Pacific theaters, administrative decisions regarding B-29 bomber operations could best be handled personally. However, theater commanders
Douglas MacArthur Douglas MacArthur (26 January 18805 April 1964) was an American general who served as a top commander during World War II and the Korean War, achieving the rank of General of the Army (United States), General of the Army. He served with dis ...
, Chester Nimitz, and Joseph Stilwell all coveted the B-29s for tactical support, to which Arnold was adamantly opposed as a diversion from strategic policy. He convinced not only Marshall, but also
Chief of Naval Operations The chief of naval operations (CNO) is the highest-ranking officer of the United States Navy. The position is a statutory office () held by an Admiral (United States), admiral who is a military adviser and deputy to the United States Secretary ...
Ernest J. King, that the Twentieth was unique in that its operations cut across the jurisdiction of all three theaters, and thus should report directly to the Joint Chiefs with Arnold acting as their executive agent. In February 1944 President Roosevelt agreed and approved the arrangement. The VLR program had been plagued with a seemingly unending series of development problems, subjecting it and Arnold to much criticism in the press and from skeptical field commanders. The B-29 was the key component of the AAF's fourth strategic priority, since no other land-based bomber was capable of reaching the Japanese homeland, but by February 1944, the XX Bomber Command, slated to begin Operation Matterhorn on 1 June, had virtually no flight time yet above an altitude of . With a designated overseas deployment date of 15 April 1944, Arnold intervened in the situation personally by flying to Kansas on 8 March 1944. For three days he toured training bases involved in the modification program. He was distressed at his findings of shortages, and of work failures. On the spot he made Maj. Gen. Bennett E. Meyers, a military procurement officer accompanying him, the coordinator of the program. Meyers succeeded in the " Battle of Kansas." Despite labor problems, and blizzard weather, a complete bomb group was ready for deployment by 9 April. The mechanical problems of the B-29, however, had not been resolved. During early combat operations many new ones were identified. Arnold felt the pressure of achieving the goals of AWPD/1, and of justifying, by results, a very expensive technological project. Arnold needed the B-29 to provide the delivery platform for the highly classified atomic bomb, if the
Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project was a research and development program undertaken during World War II to produce the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the ...
succeeded. B-29 operations against Japanese targets in China and Southeast Asia began in June 1944, and from the outset produced far less positive results than expected. The difficulties of the Twentieth Air Force's campaign against Japan mirrored those of the Eighth Air Force's against Germany. With characteristic impatience, Arnold quickly relieved Wolfe, the B-29 commander in China, after less than a month of operations, and replaced him with LeMay. A second B-29 command began operations from bases in the
Mariana Islands The Mariana Islands ( ; ), also simply the Marianas, are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen longitudinally oriented, mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st pa ...
in November. Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell, one of the architects of AWPD/1 and AWPD/42, encountered even more command problems than had Wolfe or LeMay. After two months of ostensibly poor results, but mostly because he resisted a campaign of firebombing attacks against Japanese population centers favored by Arnold and his chief of staff, Lauris Norstad, Arnold decided he too needed replacing. He shut down operations from China, consolidated all the B-29s in the Marianas, and replaced Hansell with LeMay in January 1945 as commander of XXI Bomber Command.


Final years


Health problems

Between 1943 and 1945 Arnold experienced four
heart attacks A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops in one of the coronary arteries of the heart, causing infarction (tissue death) to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is retr ...
severe enough to require hospitalization. In addition to being by nature intensely impatient, Arnold considered that his personal presence was required wherever a crisis might be, and as a result he traveled extensively and for long hours under great stress during the war, aggravating what may have been a pre-existing coronary condition. His extended trips and inspection tours were to the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
in April 1941 and again in May 1942; the South Pacific in September 1942,
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
and China in January–February 1943; the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
and Italy (where his party came under artillery fire) in November–December 1943; London and
Normandy Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy. Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Normandy (a part of France) and insular N ...
accompanying Marshall in June 1944; Germany and Italy in April–May 1945; the Western Pacific in June 1945; and
Potsdam Potsdam () is the capital and largest city of the Germany, German States of Germany, state of Brandenburg. It is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region. Potsdam sits on the Havel, River Havel, a tributary of the Elbe, downstream of B ...
in July 1945. A lesser but more frequent factor may have been his difficulty in handling inter-service politics, particularly with the Navy, which steadfastly refused to recognize him as a
chief of staff The title chief of staff (or head of staff) identifies the leader of a complex organization such as the armed forces, institution, or body of persons and it also may identify a principal staff officer (PSO), who is the coordinator of the supportin ...
or his subordinate staff as equals.Huston states that King rarely spoke to Arnold at meetings, instead directing air matters to Marshall. On Guam, with knowledge of the approaching atomic bomb decision, he negotiated with Nimitz over the Navy's objections to basing the headquarters of the strategic air forces on the island. Arnold's first heart attack occurred 28 February 1943, just after his return from the
Casablanca Conference The Casablanca Conference (codenamed SYMBOL) or Anfa Conference was held in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allies of World War II, Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. The main disc ...
and China. During that trip, ''Argonaut'', the B-17 bomber transporting his party, became lost for several hours over Japanese-held territory trying to "fly the Hump" at night. He was hospitalized at Walter Reed Army Hospital for several days, then took three weeks leave at the Coral Gables Biltmore Hotel in Florida, which had been converted into a convalescent hospital. U.S. Army regulations then required that he leave the service, but President Roosevelt waived the requirement in April after he demonstrated his recovery, and on the condition that the President be provided with monthly updates on Arnold's health. Arnold's second heart attack occurred just a month later, on 10 May 1943, and resulted in a 10-day stay in Walter Reed. Against the wishes of Marshall, he gave the commencement address for the Class of June 1943 at West Point, where his son Bruce was graduating.Arnold also presented the wings of the 208 graduates commissioned in the Air Corps, including Robin Olds, but Bruce Arnold was medically disqualified from being a pilot. His third heart attack, less severe than the first two, occurred exactly a year after the second, on 10 May 1944, under the strain of the B-29 problems. Arnold took a month's leave, returning to duty by flying with Marshall to
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
on 7 June for a conference and an inspection of Omaha Beach. Arnold's last wartime heart attack came on 17 January 1945, just days after he replaced Hansell with LeMay. Arnold had not gone into his office for three days, and refused to permit the Air Force's chief flight surgeon to examine him. The flight surgeon enlisted a general and personal friend of Arnold's to inquire on his condition,The friend was Brig. Gen
Eugene H. Beebe
who had returned to Washington to become caretaker commander of the new Continental Air Forces. Beebe's first assignment as a newly-minted lieutenant and aviator was under Arnold with the 16th Observation Squadron at Fort Riley in 1929. Arnold had been Beebe's mentor since 1932 when the lieutenant was assigned to the 31st Bomb Squadron at March Field, often flying together and using Beebe as a junior officer on the 1st Wing staff. In October 1938 when he was named chief of the Air Corps, Arnold was told he could no longer fly himself and chose Captain Beebe as his personal pilot, a position Beebe held for the next four years, rising to colonel. In the summer of 1942, recalling his own disappointment at never serving overseas in World War I, Arnold approved Beebe's request for combat duty, which resulted in command of the 308th Bomb Group, a B-24 unit Beebe trained and led in China with the Fourteenth Air Force.
after which Arnold was again flown to
Coral Gables, Florida Coral Gables is a city in Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States. The city is part of the Miami metropolitan area of South Florida and is located southwest of Greater Downtown Miami, Downtown Miami. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 ...
, and placed under 24-hour care for nine days. Arnold again was allowed to remain in the service, but under conditions that amounted to light duty. He continued to tour air bases in both theaters. Arnold was returning by C-54 from Italy to Miami for a checkup when he received the news of the German surrender on 7 May 1945. On 16 July he relinquished command of the Twentieth Air Force to LeMay.


Promotion and retirement

Arnold received honorary doctorates from Pennsylvania Military College and the
University of Southern California The University of Southern California (USC, SC, or Southern Cal) is a Private university, private research university in Los Angeles, California, United States. Founded in 1880 by Robert M. Widney, it is the oldest private research university in ...
in 1941, and from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1942. Post-war honors included doctorates from Hahnemann College, the
University of Pennsylvania The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. One of nine colonial colleges, it was chartered in 1755 through the efforts of f ...
,
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology,
Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...
, the
University of California The University of California (UC) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university, research university system in the U.S. state of California. Headquartered in Oakland, California, Oakland, the system is co ...
, and Ursinus College. Arnold also received 26 decorations and awards from foreign countries honoring his service in World War II.From Belgium, the Grand Cross with Palm, Order of the Crown and Croix de Guerre with Palm. From Brazil: Brazilian Pilot Wings; Grand Commander, National Order of the Southern Cross; and Grand Cross, Order of Military Merit. From Chile: Grand Cross of the
Order of Merit The Order of Merit () is an order of merit for the Commonwealth realms, recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or the promotion of culture. Established in 1902 by Edward VII, admission into the order r ...
. From the Republic of China: Order of the Cloud and Banner with Grand Cordon. From Colombia: Grand Officer, Order of Boyaca. From Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakian Pilot Wings. From Ecuador: Order of Abdon Calderón, First Class. From France: Croix de Guerre with Palm, and Grand Cross, Legion of Honor. From Great Britain: Knight Grand Cross of the Military Division,
Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I of Great Britain, George I on 18 May 1725. Recipients of the Order are usually senior British Armed Forces, military officers or senior Civil Service ...
. From Greece: Grand Cross of the
Order of George I The Royal Order of George I () is a Greek Order (distinction), order instituted by King Constantine I of Greece, Constantine I in 1915. Since the monarchy's abolition in 1973, it has been considered a dynastic order of the former Greek royal fami ...
with Swords. From Guatemala: Cross of Military Merit, First Class. From Italy: Grand Cross of the Military Order of Italy. From Mexico: Order of Military Merit, First Class; and Grand Cross, Order of the Aztec Eagle. From Morocco: Grand Cross of the Order of Quissam Alaouite. From the Netherlands: Knight Grand Cross with Swords,
Order of Orange-Nassau The Order of Orange-Nassau () is a civil and military Dutch order of chivalry founded on 4 April 1892 by the queen regent, Emma of the Netherlands. The order is a chivalric order open to "everyone who has performed acts of special merits for ...
. From Panama: Grand Cross of Chile, First Class; and Grand Cross, Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa. From Peru: Grand Commander, Order of the Sun; and Cross of Aviation, First Class. From Sweden: Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Sword. From Yugoslavia: Yugoslavian Pilot Wings.
On 19 March 1943, Arnold was promoted (wartime) to full
general A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air force, air and space forces, marines or naval infantry. In some usages, the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colone ...
, and on 21 December 1944, appointed a five-star General of the Army under
Public Law Public law is the part of law that governs relations and affairs between legal persons and a government, between different institutions within a state, between different branches of governments, as well as relationships between persons that ...
78–482, placing him fourth in Army rank seniority, behind only Marshall, MacArthur, and Eisenhower. In 1945, Arnold directed the founding of Project RAND (which became the
RAND Corporation The RAND Corporation, doing business as RAND, is an American nonprofit global policy think tank, research institute, and public sector consulting firm. RAND engages in research and development (R&D) in several fields and industries. Since the ...
, a non-profit think tank) with $10,000,000 of funding left over from
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. Initially tasked "to connect military planning with research and development decisions," RAND widely expanded in its scope beyond its original mission. After a trip to
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...
in January 1946, in which he developed a
heart arrhythmia Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, are irregularities in the cardiac cycle, heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. Essentially, this is anything but normal sinus rhythm. A resting heart rate that is too fast – ab ...
severe enough to cancel the remainder of the trip, Arnold left active duty in the AAF on 28 February 1946, (his official date of retirement was 30 June 1946). He issued his last order as commanding general on 8 February 1946 after which he was succeeded by Spaatz, who also became the first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force when it became a separate service. On 23 March 1946, Public Law 79–333 made the promotion to General of the Army permanent for all those holding it, and awarded full pay and allowances for those on the retired list. Arnold, not healthy enough to continue to work, retired to a ranch near Sonoma, California. He signed a contract with
Harper & Brothers Harper is an American publishing house, the flagship Imprint (trade name), imprint of global publisher HarperCollins, based in New York City. Founded in New York in 1817 by James Harper (publisher), James Harper and his brother John, the compan ...
to write his memoirs, ''Global Mission''.Arnold was assisted in the endeavor by William R. Laidlaw, who had been a public relations officer with the Eighth Air Force in England and recently established his credentials as a writer collaborating on the screenplay for the film '' Command Decision''. His autobiography was an attempt to provide financial security for his wife after his death. Unlike George S. Patton, who had died suddenly in 1945 but had been independently wealthy, or his other colleagues who had taken positions in government, such as Marshall (appointed Secretary of State), Arnold had no source of income beyond his retirement pay and allowances. During the writing of it he suffered his fifth heart attack in January 1948, hospitalizing him for three months. On 7 May 1949, changed the designation of Arnold's final rank and grade to that of General of the Air Force, and he remains the only person to have held the rank. He is also the only person to hold five-star rank in two U.S. military services.


Death

Arnold died on 15 January 1950, at his home in Sonoma. He was given a
state funeral A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honour people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones and distinctive elements o ...
in Washington, D.C., that included rare services held in Arlington Memorial Amphitheater, and he was buried in Section 34, plot number 44-A, of Arlington National Cemetery. Robert A. Lovett, with whom Arnold worked closely during the war in his capacity as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, stated that Arnold had been as much a casualty of war as if he had been injured in the line of duty. All three of Arnold's surviving sons were graduates of West Point (Henry Harley Jr., 1939;Because poor eyesight disqualified him as a pilot, "Hank" Arnold was commissioned in the Coast Artillery Corps and commanded an AAA automatic weapons battalion in Italy. After 1945, the remainder of his career was as a Field Artillery officer. Willam Bruce, June 1943;Bruce Arnold entered the United States Naval Academy's Class of 1942, but dropped out in June 1939. He enlisted in the Cavalry, took and passed a competitive exam for entrance to West Point, and entered the Class of 1944 in July 1940. His class was accelerated because of the war and graduated as the Class of June 1943. Because of poor eyesight he too went into the Coast Artillery Corps, becoming an antiaircraft battery commander on Okinawa by the end of the war. Bruce resolved a 20-year resentment of his father and transferred to the United States Air Force in March 1949. and David Lee, 1949Col. David Arnold was the only son to spend his entire career in the USAF, but like his brothers, was not rated.) and reached the grade of colonel. The two youngest served in the United States Air Force and are interred near their father's burial site at Arlington National Cemetery.


Legacy

General H. H. Arnold Field (Athletic Field) at Lower Merion High School, Ardmore, Pennsylvania, 19003, is named for Arnold. Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee, and the Arnold Engineering Development Complex are named for Arnold. The Air Force Research Laboratory generally recognizes Arnold as the visionary who first articulated that superior research and development capabilities are essential to deterring and winning wars. Arnold's ideas underpin the Laboratory's modern-day role within the Air Force. The cadet social center at the United States Air Force Academy, Arnold Hall, and the Arnold Hall Community Center at Lackland Air Force Base near San Antonio,
Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
, are both named for Arnold. The Civil Air Patrol has named an award that accompanies the rank of Cadet Airman First Class after him, being known as the Hap Arnold Award. The Air Force Association recognizes the "most significant contribution by a military member for national defense" with its H. H. Arnold Award. The top honorary organization in Air Force ROTC, the Arnold Air Society, is named for him, and The George C. Marshall Foundation awards the George C. Marshall/Henry "Hap" Arnold ROTC Award annually to the top senior cadet at each college or university with an AFROTC program. The Air Force Aid Society, which he founded, awards a college scholarship in his name to the dependents of Air Force members or retirees. On December 21, 1944, Arnold was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of Dwight D. Eisenhower, George Marshall, and
Douglas MacArthur Douglas MacArthur (26 January 18805 April 1964) was an American general who served as a top commander during World War II and the Korean War, achieving the rank of General of the Army (United States), General of the Army. He served with dis ...
, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II, and along with Omar Bradley, one of only five men to achieve the rank since the 5 August 1888, death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank as a Five-star rank, Five-star general. The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis when Public Law 78–482 was passed on 14 December 1944,. This law allowed only 75% of pay and allowances to the grade for those on the retired list. as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was then declared permanent 23 March 1946, by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their United Kingdom, British counterparts holding the ranks of Field marshal (United Kingdom), field marshal and admiral of the fleet (Royal Navy), admiral of the fleet. This second General of the Army rank is not the same as the post-Civil War era version because of its purpose and five stars. In 1967, "Hap" Arnold was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame. In 1972, Arnold was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. On 18 May 2006, the Department of the Air Force introduced prototypes of two new service dress uniforms, one resembling those worn by Air Service officers prior to 1926, called the "Billy Mitchell heritage coat," and another, resembling the U.S. Army Air Forces' Uniform of World War II and named the "Hap Arnold heritage coat". In 2007, the Air Force decided in favor of the "Hap Arnold" prototype, but in 2009 the new Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, chief of staff of the Air Force directed that "no further effort be made on the Hap Arnold Heritage Coat" and the uniform change was suspended indefinitely. During the last mission of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', STS-134, a five-star insignia of Arnold's preserved in the National Museum of the United States Air Force was carried into space by shuttle pilot Gregory H. Johnson as a commemorative gesture to Arnold's legacy. Arnold was then the featured honoree of the museum's National Aviation Day celebration of 20 August 2011, when Johnson returned the insignia to the museum. In the Great Bend Municipal Airport, the B-29 Memorial Plaza display a commemorative plaque for his contribution to the B-29 program. The United States Department of Defense high school at the former Wiesbaden Air Base in Wiesbaden, Germany, was named General H. H. Arnold High School in 1949. The school was renamed Wiesbaden High School in 2006 after the installation was transferred to the United States Army. On 7 November 1988, the United States Postal Service released the H. H. "Hap" Arnold 65 cent postage stamp bearing the likeness of Arnold, in his honor, as part of the Great Americans series. Arnold Heights, California, is named in his honor, as is Arnold Drive, a main arterial road running through Sonoma Valley near his ranch. Hap Arnold Boulevard, the main access road to Tobyhanna Army Depot in Tobyhanna, Pennsylvania, is named in his honor. General Arnold was the USAFA Class exemplar, class exemplar of the United States Air Force Academy Class of 2012.


Film

In a rare depiction on film, Arnold was sympathetically portrayed in the 1954 film ''The Glenn Miller Story'', played by Barton MacLane. He was portrayed by Robert Brubaker in The Court Martial of Billy Mitchell. In 1977, he was again portrayed on film by actor Walter O. Miles in the two-part opus ''The Amazing Howard Hughes'', starring Tommy Lee Jones as Hughes. Arnold appeared in a speaking role as himself in ''Men of the Sky'', a Technicolor propaganda short made by Warner Brothers and released on 25 July 1942. He appears as himself in the first eight minutes of the twenty-minute short, filmed in May 1942 at Castle Air Force Base, Merced Army Air Field, California. In the short, he alights from his Douglas DC-2, C-42 staff transport at the training base to preside at a graduation ceremony for pilots completing their flight training. Arnold delivers a short address and speaks with each of four pilots (actors Tod Andrews, Don DeFore, Ray Montgomery (actor), Ray Montgomery, and Dave Willock) as he pins on their wings.''Men of the Sky''
, at Internet Movie Data Base. Retrieved January 12, 2016


Summary of service


Dates of rank


Awards and decorations

Source: AF Historical Study No. 91.


Published works


Non-fiction books

* * * * * * * * ** **


Children's books

* * * * *


See also

* List of United States Air Force four-star generals * List of United States Army four-star generals


Notes


Footnotes


Citations


References

* * * * * * * (Part I) * (Part II) * * * * * * * * Huston's introductory biography is 108 pages in length, and is a detailed account of Arnold's life, both professional and personal, to 1941. * ** ** ** * * * * * USAF Historical Studies * No. 89: * No. 91: * No. 98: * No. 112:


Further reading

* * * *


External links


NMUSAF fact sheet: Gen. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold

General Henry H. Arnold (official USAF biography)


Air University biography *
Henry H. Arnold at Arlington National Cemetery – official website
*
Arnold Air Society biography

National Aviation Hall of Fame enshrinement page
* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Arnold, Henry H. 1886 births 1950 deaths Aerial warfare pioneers American five-star officers American aviation record holders United States Army Air Forces generals United States Army personnel of World War I United States Air Force generals Members of the Early Birds of Aviation United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Recipients of the Air Medal Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Recipients of the Order of the Sun of Peru, 2 Arnold, Henry H. Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) American recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium) Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Brazil) American recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Grand Crosses of the Order of George I with Swords Recipients of the Military Order of Italy Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau Children of the American Revolution people Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Mackay Trophy winners RAND Corporation people Stunt pilots United States Military Academy alumni Lower Merion High School alumni United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni Air Corps Tactical School alumni Aviators from Pennsylvania Military personnel from Pennsylvania People from Lower Merion Township, Pennsylvania People from Sonoma, California Baptists from California Baptists from Pennsylvania Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Military personnel from California