Ghirlandaio - Tornabuoni Chapel - a Humanist philosopher

The migration waves of

Byzantine Greek Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic; Greek: ) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the F ...

scholars and émigrés in the period following the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 are considered by many scholars key to the revival of

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

studies that led to the development of Renaissance humanism and

science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

. These émigrés brought to Western Europe the relatively well-preserved remnants and accumulated knowledge of their own (Greek) civilization, which had mostly not survived the Early Middle Ages in the West. The ''

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

'' claims: "Many modern scholars also agree that the exodus of Greeks to Italy as a result of this event marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance," although few scholars date the start of the Italian Renaissance this late.

History

The main role of Byzantine scholars within Renaissance humanism was the teaching of the

Greek language Greek (, ; , ) is an Indo-European languages, Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic languages, Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), south ...

to their Western counterparts in universities or privately, together with the spread of ancient texts. Their forerunners were Barlaam of Calabria (Bernardo Massari) and Leonzio Pilato, two translators who were both born in Calabria in southern Italy and educated in the Greek language. The impact of these two scholars on the humanists was indisputable. By 1500 there was a Greek-speaking community of about 5,000 in

Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...

. The Venetians also ruled

Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

Dalmatia Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...

, and scattered islands and port cities of the former empire, the populations of which were augmented by refugees from other Byzantine provinces who preferred Venetian to Ottoman governance. Crete was especially notable for the

Cretan School Cretan school describes an important school of icon painting, under the umbrella of post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the fall of Constantinople, beco ...

icon An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic Church, Catholic, and Lutheranism, Lutheran churches. The most common subjects include Jesus, Mary, mother of ...

-painting, which after 1453 became the most important in the Greek world. After the peak of the

Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( ) was a period in History of Italy, Italian history between the 14th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Western Europe and marked t ...

in the first decades of the 16th century, the flow of information reversed, and Greek scholars in Italy were employed to oppose Turkish expansion into former Byzantine lands in Greece, prevent the Protestant

Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...

spreading there and help bring the Eastern Churches back into communion with Rome. In 1577,

Gregory XIII Pope Gregory XIII (, , born Ugo Boncompagni; 7 January 1502 – 10 April 1585) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 May 1572 to his death in April 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake ...

founded the Collegio Pontificio Greco as a college in

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

to receive young Greeks belonging to any nation in which the

Greek Rite The Byzantine Rite, also known as the Greek Rite or the Rite of Constantinople, is a liturgical rite that is identified with the wide range of cultural, devotional, and canonical practices that developed in the Eastern Christianity, Eastern Chri ...

was used, and consequently for Greek refugees in

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

as well as the

Ruthenians A ''Ruthenian'' and ''Ruthene'' are exonyms of Latin language, Latin origin, formerly used in Eastern and Central Europe as common Ethnonym, ethnonyms for East Slavs, particularly during the late medieval and early modern periods. The Latin term ...

and Malchites of

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

and

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

. The construction of the College and Church of S. Atanasio, joined by a bridge over the ''Via dei Greci'', began that year. Although ideas from

ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...

already enjoyed popularity with the scholars of the 14th century and their importance to the Renaissance was undeniable, the lessons of Greek learning brought by Byzantine intellectuals changed the course of

humanism Humanism is a philosophy, philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and Agency (philosophy), agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The me ...

and the Renaissance itself. While Greek learning affected all the subjects of the ''

studia humanitatis The Latin school was the grammar school of 14th- to 19th-century Europe, though the latter term was much more common in England. Other terms used include Lateinschule in Germany, or later Gymnasium. Latin schools were also established in Colon ...

'', history and philosophy in particular were profoundly affected by the texts and ideas brought from

Byzantium Byzantium () or Byzantion () was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' continued to be used as a n ...

. History was changed by the re-discovery and spread of Greek historians' writings, and this knowledge of Greek historical treatises helped the subject of history become a guide to virtuous living based on the study of past events and people. The effects of this renewed knowledge of Greek history can be seen in the writings of humanists on virtue, which was a popular topic. Specifically, these effects are shown in the examples provided from Greek antiquity that displayed virtue as well as vice. The philosophy of not only

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

but also

Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...

affected the Renaissance by causing debates over man's place in the universe, the immortality of the soul, and the ability of man to improve himself through virtue. The flourishing of philosophical writings in the 15th century revealed the impact of

Greek philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Philosophy was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysic ...

and science on the Renaissance. The resonance of these changes lasted through the centuries following the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

not only in the writing of humanists, but also in the education and values of

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

and western society even to the present day.Constantinople and the West by Deno John Geanakopulos- Italian Renaissance and thought and the role of Byzantine emigres scholars in Florence, Rome and Venice: A reassessment University of Wisconsin Press, 1989 Deno Geanakopoulos in his work on the contribution of Byzantine Greek scholars to Renaissance has summarised their input into three major shifts to Renaissance thought: * in early 14th century

Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...

from the early, central emphasis on rhetoric to one on metaphysical philosophy by means of introducing and reinterpretation of the Platonic texts, * in

Padua Padua ( ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Veneto, northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Padua. The city lies on the banks of the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice and southeast of Vicenza, and has a population of 20 ...

by reducing the dominance of Averroist

in science and philosophy by supplementing but not completely replacing it with Byzantine traditions which utilised ancient and Byzantine commentators on Aristotle, * and earlier in the mid-15th century in Rome, through emphasis not on any philosophical school but on the production of more authentic and reliable versions of Greek texts relevant to all fields of humanism and science, and with respect to the Greek Fathers of the Church. Hardly less important was their direct or indirect influence on the

exegesis Exegesis ( ; from the Ancient Greek, Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation (philosophy), interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Bible, Biblical works. In modern us ...

of the

New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...

itself through Cardinal Bessarion's inspiration of

Lorenzo Valla Lorenzo Valla (; also latinized as Laurentius; 1 August 1457) was an Italian Renaissance humanist, rhetorician, educator and scholar. He is best known for his historical-critical textual analysis that proved that the Donation of Constantine w ...

's biblical emendations of the Latin

vulgate The Vulgate () is a late-4th-century Bible translations into Latin, Latin translation of the Bible. It is largely the work of Saint Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Gospels used by the Diocese of ...

in the light of the Greek text.

Scholars

* Leo Allatius ( – 1669), Rome, librarian of the library of Vatican * George Amiroutzes (1400–1470), Florence, Aristotelian *

Henry Aristippus Henry Aristippus of Calabria (born in Santa Severina in 1105–10; died in Palermo in 1162), sometimes known as Enericus or Henricus Aristippus, was a religious scholar and the archdeacon of Catania (from c. 1155) and later chief '' familiaris'' ...

of Calabria (1105–10 – 1162) * Michael Apostolius ( – after 1474 or 1486), Rome *

Arsenius Apostolius Arsenius Apostolius ( or Ἀρσένιος Ἀποστόλης; c. 1468 – 1538) was a Greek scholar who lived for a long time in Venice. He was also bishop of Monemvasia in the Peloponnese. Life Arsenius Apostolius was born about 1468 in Crete ...

( – 1538), Venice, bishop of Monemvasia *

John Argyropoulos John Argyropoulos (; ''Ioannis Argyropoulos''; ; surname also spelt ''Argyropulus'', or ''Argyropulos'', or ''Argyropulo''; c. 1415 – 26 June 1487) was a lecturer, philosopher, and humanist, one of the émigré Greek scholars who pioneered th ...

( – 1487), Universities of Florence, Rome * Simon Atumano (14th century), Bishop of Gerace in Calabria * Bessarion (1403–1472), Catholic cardinal *

Barlaam of Seminara Barlaam may refer to: *Barlaam and Josaphat, Barlaam, legendary Christian saint, teacher of prince Josaphat in India in the Barlaam and Josaphat tale *Barlaam of Antioch (died 304), Christian martyr *Barlaam of Kiev (11th century), saint in the Ru ...

(–1348), he taught

Petrarch Francis Petrarch (; 20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374; ; modern ), born Francesco di Petracco, was a scholar from Arezzo and poet of the early Italian Renaissance, as well as one of the earliest Renaissance humanism, humanists. Petrarch's redis ...

some rudiments of Greek language * Zacharias Calliergi (fl. 1499–1515), Rome * Laonicus Chalcocondyles (), historian, Athens * Demetrius Chalcondyles (1423–1511), Padua, Florence, Milan * Theofilos Chalcocondylis, Florence *

Manuel Chrysoloras Manuel (or Emmanuel) Chrysoloras (; c. 1350 – 15 April 1415) was a Byzantine Greeks, Byzantine Greek classical scholar, Renaissance humanist, humanist, philosopher, professor, and translator of ancient Greek texts during the Renaissance. Serv ...

( – 1415), Florence, Pavia, Rome, Venice, Milan * John Chrysoloras, scholar and diplomat: relative of

, patron of

Francesco Filelfo Francesco Filelfo (; 25 July 1398 – 31 July 1481) was an Italian Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist and author of the philosophic dialogue ''On Exile''. Biography Filelfo was born at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. He is believed t ...

Andronicus Contoblacas Andronicus Contoblacas () was a Greek renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist and scholar. Contobacles originated from Constantinople and left after the Ottoman Empire conquered the city. He first travelled to Venice, Italy.Schmidt, Wolfgang O. ( ...

, Basel, teacher of

Johann Reuchlin Johann Reuchlin (; 29 January 1455 – 30 June 1522), sometimes called Johannes, was a German Catholic humanist and a scholar of Greek and Hebrew, whose work also took him to modern-day Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and France. Most of Reuchlin's c ...

* Johannes Crastonis (d. after 1497), Modena, Greek-Latin dictionary * Andronicus Callistus (1400 – ), Rome, Bologna, Florence, Paris, cousin of Theodorus Gaza * Demetrius Cydones (1324–1398), Mesazon of the Byzantine Empire * Mathew Devaris (fl. 1552–1550), Rome * Demetrios Ducas (), Spain * Elia del Medigo (), Venice, Rome, Padua, Jewish philosopher * Antonios Eparchos (1491–1571), Venice, scholar and poet * Antonio de Ferraris ( – 1517), academic, doctor and humanist * Theodorus Gaza (), first dean of the University of Ferrara, Naples and Rome * George Gemistos Plethon (/1360 – 1452/54), teacher of Bessarion * George of Trebizond (1395–1486), Venice, Florence, Rome * George Hermonymus (before 1435 – after 1503),

University of Paris The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...

, teacher of

Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus ( ; ; 28 October c. 1466 – 12 July 1536), commonly known in English as Erasmus of Rotterdam or simply Erasmus, was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic priest and Catholic theology, theologian, educationalist ...

, Reuchlin, Budaeus and Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples * Georgios Kalafatis (ca. 1652 – ca. 1720), Greek professor of theoretical and practical medicine * Andreas Musalus (ca. 1665/6 – ca. 1721), Greek professor of mathematics, philosopher and architectural theorist *

Nicholas Kalliakis Nicholas Kalliakis (, ''Nikolaos Kalliakis''; ; ; c. 1645 - 8 May 1707) was a Cretan Greek scholar and philosopher who flourished in Italy in the 17th century. He was appointed doctor of philosophy and theology in Rome, university professor of Gre ...

(Nicolai Calliachius) (1645–1707), a

scholar and philosopher who flourished in Italy. * Mathaeos Kamariotis (d. 1490), Constantinople *

Isidore of Kiev Isidore or Isidor of Kiev, also known as Isidore of Thessalonica (1385 – 27 April 1463), was a prelate of Byzantine Greek origin. From 1437 to 1441, he served as the metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus', based in Moscow, after being chosen by ...

(1385–1463) * Ioannis Kigalas (ca. 1622 – 1687), Greek scholar and professor of Philosophy and Logic * Ioannis Kottounios ( – 1658), Padua * Konstantinos Kallokratos (b. 1589), Calabria *

Constantine Lascaris Constantine Lascaris ( ''Kostantinos Láskaris''; 1434 – 15 August 1501) was a Greek scholar and grammarian, one of the promoters of the revival of Greek learning in Italy during the Renaissance, born in Constantinople. Life Constantine Lasca ...

(1434–1501),

University of Messina The University of Messina (; Latin: ''Studiorum Universitas Messanae''), known colloquially as UniME, is a state university located in Messina, Sicily, Italy. Founded in 1548 by Pope Paul III, it was the world's first Jesuit college, and today it ...

* Janus Lascaris or Rhyndacenus ( – 1535), Rome * Leonard of Chios (), Greek-born Roman Catholic prelate * Nikolaos Loukanis (16th century), Venice * Maximus the Greek ( – 1556) studied in Italy before moving to Russia * Maximos Margunios (1549–1602), Venice *

Marcus Musurus Marcus Musurus (; ; – 1517) was a Greek scholar and philosopher born in Candia, Venetian Crete (modern Heraklion, Crete). Life The son of a rich merchant, Musurus became at an early age a pupil of Janus Lascaris in Venice. In 1505, Musurus w ...

( – 1517), University of Padua * Michael Tarchaniota Marullus (с. 1458 – 1500), Ancona and Florence, friend and pupil of Jovianus Pontanus * Leonardos Philaras (1595–1673), an early advocate for Greek independence *

Maximus Planudes Maximus Planudes (, ''Máximos Planoúdēs''; ) was a Byzantine Greek monk, scholar, anthologist, translator, mathematician, grammarian and theologian at Constantinople. Through his translations from Latin into Greek and from Greek into Latin, ...

(), Rome, Venice, anthologist, mathematician, grammarian, theologian * Franciscus Portus (1511–1581), Venice, Ferrara, Geneva * John Servopoulos (fl. 1484–1500), scholar, professor, Oxford * Nikolaos Sophianos ( – after 1551), Rome, Venice: scholar and geographer, creator of the Totius Graeciae Descriptio * Nicholas Leonicus Thomaeus (1456–1531), Venice, Padua *

Iakovos Trivolis Iakovos Trivolis (died 1547) was a Greeks, Greek Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist and writer. He published a historical work titled ''History of Tallapieras'' after the exploits of the namesake Republic of Venice, Venetian ship captain, a ...

(d. 1547), Venice * Gregory Tifernas (1414–1462), Paris, teacher of Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples and Robert Gaguin * Gerasimos Vlachos (1607–1685), Venice *

Francesco Maurolico Francesco Maurolico (Latin: ''Franciscus Maurolycus''; Italian language, Italian: ''Francesco Maurolico''; ; Sicilian language, Sicilian: ''Francescu Maurolicu''; 16 September 1494 – 22 July 1575) was an Italian mathematician and astronomer fr ...

(1494–1575), mathematician and astronomer from Sicily

Painting and music

* Marco Basaiti (), painter, Venice * Belisario Corenzio (–1643), painter, Napoli * Michael Damaskenos (1530/35–1592/93), Venice, Cretan painter *

Georgios Klontzas Georgios Klontzas (; 1535–1608), also known as George Klontzas or Zorzi Cloza dito Cristianopullo, was a Greek scholar and painter of the Cretan school, Cretan Renaissance. He is one of the most influential artists of the post-Byzantine period, ...

(1535-1608) Cretan painter * Thomas Flanginis (1578–1648), Venice, funded the establishment of the Flanginian Greek school for teachers *

El Greco Doménikos Theotokópoulos (, ; 1 October 1541 7 April 1614), most widely known as El Greco (; "The Greek"), was a Greek painter, sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance, regarded as one of the greatest artists of all time. ...

(1541–1614), the nickname for the Cretan painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos,

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

* Francisco Leontaritis (1518 – ), Italy, Bavaria: singer and composer * Anna Notaras (d. 1507), Venice, first Greek printing press *

Angelos Pitzamanos Angelos Pitzamanos (; 1467–1535) was a Greek Renaissance painter. The artist is sometimes referred to as Angelos Bitzamanos. He was born in Crete and migrated to Otranto, Southern Italy, where he did most of his work. A contract between Andreas ...

(1467–1535),

Cretan Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

painter, Otranto,

Southern Italy Southern Italy (, , or , ; ; ), also known as () or (; ; ; ), is a macroregion of Italy consisting of its southern Regions of Italy, regions. The term "" today mostly refers to the regions that are associated with the people, lands or cultu ...

Janus Plousiadenos Janus Plousiadenos (Greek: Ιωάννης Πλουσιαδηνός, Ioannis Plousiadenos, episcopal name: Ιωσήφ, Ioseph; circa 1429-1500) was a 15th-century Greeks, Greek Renaissance scholar, hymnographer and composer born in Crete. Plousiadeno ...

(), Venice, hymnographer and composer * Theodore Poulakis (1622–1692), Venice, painter *

Emmanuel Tzanes Emmanuel Tzanes (; 1610 – 28 March 1690), also known as Bounialis (), Emmanuel Tzane-Bounialis, Emmanuel Zane, or Emmanuel Tzane, was a Greek Renaissance iconographer, author, clergyman, and educator. He spent the latter half of his life in Ve ...

(1610–1690), Venice, Cretan painter * John Rhosos (d. 1498), Rome, Venice well-known scribe *

Antonio Vassilacchi Antonio Vassilacchi (; ; 1556–1629), also called L'Aliense, was a Greek painter, who was active mostly in Venice and the Veneto. Biography Antonio Vassilacchi was born of Greeks, Greek descent, on the island of Milos, Greece in 1556. He left ve ...

(1556–1629), painter from

Milos Milos or Melos (; , ; ) is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. It is the southwestern-most island of the Cyclades group. The ''Venus de Milo'' (now in the Louvre), the ''Poseidon of Melos'' (now in the ...

worked in

with

Paolo Veronese Paolo Caliari (152819 April 1588), known as Paolo Veronese ( , ; ), was an Italian Renaissance painter based in Venice, known for extremely large history paintings of religion and mythology, such as ''The Wedding at Cana (Veronese), The Wedding ...

References

Sources

* Deno J. Geanakoplos, ''Byzantine East and Latin West: Two worlds of Christendom in Middle Ages and renaissance''. The Academy Library Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1966. * Deno J. Geanakoplos, (1958) ''A Byzantine looks at the renaissance'', Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 1 (2);pp:157-62. * Jonathan Harris, ''Greek Émigrés in the West, 1400-1520'', Camberley: Porphyrogenitus, 1995. * Louise Ropes Loomis (1908) ''The Greek Renaissance in Italy'' The American Historical Review, 13(2);pp:246-258. * John Monfasani ''Byzantine Scholars in Renaissance Italy: Cardinal Bessarion and Other Émigrés'': Selected Essays, Aldershot, Hampshire: Variorum, 1995. * Steven Runciman, ''The fall of Constantinople, 1453''. Cambridge University press, Cambridge 1965. * Fotis Vassileiou & Barbara Saribalidou, ''Short Biographical Lexicon of Byzantine Academics Immigrants to Western Europe'', 2007. * Dimitri Tselos (1956) ''A Greco-Italian School of Illuminators and Fresco Painters: Its Relation to the Principal Reims * Nigel G. Wilson. ''From Byzantium to Italy: Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.

External links

Greece: Books and Writers.

* ttp://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/late/laterbyz/harris-ren.html Jonathan Harris, 'Byzantines in Renaissance Italy'.
Bilingual (Greek original / English) excerpts from Gennadios Scholarios' Epistle to Orators.

Paul Botley, Renaissance Scholarship and the Athenian Calendar.

Karl Krumbacher: 'The History of Byzantine Literature: from Justinian to the end of the Eastern Roman Empire (527-1453)'.

Istituto Ellenico di Studi Byzantini and Postbyzantini di Venezia
{{DEFAULTSORT:Greek Scholars In The Renaissance Byzantine science Renaissance * *Scholars Renaissance humanism Greece–Italy relations