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The Great French Wine Blight was a severe
blight Blight refers to a specific symptom affecting plants in response to infection by a pathogenic organism. Description Blight is a rapid and complete chlorosis, browning, then death of plant tissues such as leaves, branches, twigs, or floral org ...
of the mid-19th century that destroyed many of the
vineyard A vineyard (; also ) is a plantation of grape-bearing vines, grown mainly for winemaking, but also raisins, table grapes and non-alcoholic grape juice. The science, practice and study of vineyard production is known as viticulture. Vineya ...
s in France and laid waste to the wine industry. It was caused by an
aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...
that originated in North America and was carried across the Atlantic in the late 1850s. The actual genus of the aphid is still debated, although it is largely considered to have been a species of '' Daktulosphaira vitifoliae'', commonly known as grape phylloxera. While France is considered to have been worst affected, the blight also did a great deal of damage to vineyards in other European countries. How the ''Phylloxera'' aphid was introduced to Europe remains debated: American vines had been taken to Europe many times before, for reasons including experimentation and trials in grafting, without consideration of the possibility of the introduction of pestilence. While the ''Phylloxera'' was thought to have arrived around 1858, it was first recorded in France in 1863, in the former province of
Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (; , ; oc, Lengadòc ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately ...
. It is argued by some that the introduction of such pests as phylloxera was only a problem after the invention of steamships, which allowed a faster journey across the ocean, and consequently allowed pests such as the ''Phylloxera'' to survive the trip. Eventually, following Jules-Émile Planchon's discovery of the ''Phylloxera'' as the cause of the blight, and
Charles Valentine Riley Charles Valentine Riley (18 September 1843 – 14 September 1895) was a British-born American entomologist and artist. He was one of the first individuals to use biological pest control and authored over 2,400 publications. He convinced Congress ...
's confirmation of Planchon's theory, Leo Laliman and , two French wine growers, proposed that the European vines be grafted to the resistant American rootstock that were not susceptible to the ''Phylloxera''. While many of the French wine growers disliked this idea, many found themselves with no other option. The method proved to be an effective remedy. The "Reconstitution" (as it was termed) of the many vineyards that had been lost was a slow process, but eventually the wine industry in France was able to return to relative normality.


Background

The aphid that was the central source of the damage in France was first noted following the growing of the European
vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themsel ...
''Vitis vinifera'' by French colonists in Florida, in the 16th century. These plantations were a failure, and later experiments with related species of vine also failed, although the reason for these failures appears to have been a mystery to the French colonists. It is known today that it was a species of North American grape phylloxera that caused these early vineyards to fail; the venom injected by the ''Phylloxera'' causes a disease that is quickly fatal to the European varieties of vine.Ellen M. Harkness, Richard P. Vine, Sally J. Linton ''Winemaking: From Grape Growing to Marketplace''. Springer, 2002. The aphids initially went unnoticed by the colonists, despite their great numbers, and the pressure to successfully start a vineyard in America at the time. It became common knowledge among the settlers that their European vines, of the ''vinifera'' variety, simply would not grow in American soil, and they resorted to growing native American plants, and established plantations of these native vines. Exceptions did exist; ''vinifera'' plantations were well-established in California before the aphids found their way there.


Phylloxera

There have been several theories proposed for why the phylloxera was ignored as the possible cause of the disease that resulted in the failure of so many vineyards, most of which involve the feeding behaviour of the insect, and the way it attacks the roots. The
proboscis A proboscis () is an elongated appendage from the head of an animal, either a vertebrate or an invertebrate. In invertebrates, the term usually refers to tubular mouthparts used for feeding and sucking. In vertebrates, a proboscis is an elong ...
of the grape phylloxera has both a venom canal from which it injects its deadly venom and a feeding tube through which it takes in vine
sap Sap is a fluid transported in xylem cells (vessel elements or tracheids) or phloem sieve tube elements of a plant. These cells transport water and nutrients throughout the plant. Sap is distinct from latex, resin, or cell sap; it is a separ ...
and nutrients. As the
toxin A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849 ...
from the venom corrodes the
root In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the su ...
structure of a vine, the sap pressure falls and, as a result, the ''Phylloxera'' quickly withdraws its feeding tube and searches for another source of food. Thus, anyone digging up a diseased and dying vine will not find ''Phylloxera'' clinging to the roots of the plant.Ordish, George. ''The Great Wine Blight''. Pan Macmillan, 1987.


Journey to Europe

For a few centuries, Europeans had experimented with American vines and plants in their soil. Many varieties were imported from America without regulation, disregarding the possibility of pest transfer and related problems. Jules-Emile Planchon, a French
biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual Cell (biology), cell, a multicellular organism, or a Community (ecology), community of Biological inter ...
who identified the ''Phylloxera'' in the 1860s, maintained that the transfer of American vines and plants into Europe greatly increased between roughly 1858 and 1862, and accidentally introduced ''Phylloxera'' to Europe around 1860. Others say that the aphid did not enter France until around 1863. The advent of steamships may have been a factor: as they were faster than sailing ships, the ''Phylloxera'' were better able to survive the shorter ocean voyage.


The blight


Initial appearance

The first known documented instance of an attack by the ''Phylloxera'' in France was in the village of Pujaut in the department of Gard of the former province of
Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (; , ; oc, Lengadòc ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately ...
, in 1863.''Viticulture: An Introduction to Commercial Grape Growing for Wine Production.'' Published 2007. The wine makers there did not notice the aphids, just as the French colonists in America had not, but they noted the mysterious blight that was damaging their vines. The only description of the disease that was given by these wine growers was that it "reminded them distressingly of 'consumption'"(tuberculosis). The blight quickly spread throughout France, but it was several years before the cause of the disease was determined.


Damage

Over 40% of French grape vines and vineyards were devastated over a 15-year period from the late 1850s to the mid-1870s. The French economy was badly hit by the blight: many businesses were lost, and wages in the wine industry were cut to less than half. There was also a noticeable trend of migration to places such as Algiers and America. The production of cheap
raisin A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in many regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking, and brewing. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, the word ''raisin'' is reserved for the ...
s and sugar wines caused the domestic industry several problems that threatened to persist even after the blight itself. The damage to the French economy is estimated to have been slightly over 10 billion
Francs The franc is any of various units of currency. One franc is typically divided into 100 centimes. The name is said to derive from the Latin inscription ''francorum rex'' (King of the Franks) used on early French coins and until the 18th centu ...
.


Discovery

Research into the cause of the disease began in 1868, when grape growers in Roquemaure, near Pujaut, asked the agricultural society in Montpellier for help. The society appointed a committee including botanist Jules Émile Planchon, local grower Felix Sahut, and the society's president, Gaston Bazille. Sahut soon noticed that the roots of dying vines were infested with "lice" which were sucking sap from the plants. The committee named the new insect ''Rhizaphis vastatrix''. Planchon consulted French entomologists Victor Antoine Signoret and Jules Lichtenstein (Planchon's brother-in-law). Signoret suggested renaming the insect ''Phylloxera vastatrix'', due to its similarity to ''Phylloxera quercus'', which afflicted oak leaves. In 1869, English entomologist John Obadiah Westwood suggested that an insect that had afflicted grape leaves in England circa 1863 was the same insect afflicting grape vines' roots in France. Also in 1869, Lichtenstein suggested that the French insect was an American "vine louse" that had been identified in 1855 by the American entomologist Asa Fitch, which he had named ''Pemphigus vitifoliae''. However, there was a problem with these suggestions: French grape lice were known to infest only a vine's roots, whereas American grape lice were known to infest only its leaves. The British-born American entomologist Charles Valentine Riley had been following news of the outbreak in France. He sent Signoret specimens of American grape lice, which Signoret concluded – in 1870, while he was besieged in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War – were indeed identical to French grape lice. Meanwhile, Planchon and Lichtenstein had found vines with afflicted leaves; lice that were transferred from those leaves to the roots of healthy vines attached themselves to the vines' roots as other French grape lice did. Also in 1870, Riley discovered that American grape lice wintered on American grape vines' roots, which the insects damaged, albeit less than in the case of French vines. Riley repeated Planchon and Lichtenstein's experiment using American grape vines and American grape lice, with similar results. Thus the identity of the French and American grape lice was proven. Nevertheless, for another three years, a powerful majority in France argued that ''Phylloxera'' was not the cause of vine disease; instead, vines that were already sickly became infested with ''Phylloxera''. Thus, in their opinion, ''Phylloxera'' was merely a consequence of the "true" disease, which remained to be found. Regardless, Riley had discovered American grape varieties that were especially resistant to ''Phylloxera'', and by 1871, French farmers began to import them and to graft French vines onto the American rootstock. (Leo Laliman had suggested importing American vines as early as 1869, but French farmers were reluctant to abandon their traditional varieties. Gaston Bazille then proposed grafting traditional French vines onto American rootstock.) However, importation of American vines did not entirely solve the problem: some American grape varieties struggled in France's chalky soils and succumbed to ''Phylloxera''.(Sorensen et al., 2008), p. 141. By trial and error, American vines were found that could tolerate chalky soils. Meanwhile, entomologists worked to unravel the strange life cycle of ''Phylloxera'', a project that was completed in 1874.


Solution

Many growers resorted to their own methods in attempt to resolve the issue. Chemicals and pesticides were used to no avail. In desperation, some growers positioned toads under each vine, and others allowed their poultry to roam free in the hope they would eat the insects. None of these methods was successful. After Charles Valentine Riley, Missouri's state entomologist, confirmed Planchon's theory, Leo Laliman and , two French wine growers, both suggested the possibility that if ''vinifera'' vines could be combined, by means of grafting, with the aphid-resistant American vines, then the problem might be solved.
Thomas Volney Munson Thomas Volney Munson (September 26, 1843 – January 21, 1913), often referred to simply as T.V. Munson, was a horticulturist and breeder of grapes in Texas. In 1888, Munson was the second American, after Thomas Edison, to be named a Chevalie ...
was consulted and provided native Texan rootstocks for grafting. Because of Munson's role, the French government in 1888 sent a delegation to Denison, Texas to confer on him the French Legion of Honor Chevalier du Mérite Agricole. Another viticulturist,
Hermann Jaeger Hermann Jaeger (March 23, 1844 – c. May 17, 1895) was a Swiss-American viticulturist, honored as a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor for his part in saving the French wine industry from the phylloxera root louse pest. Early life Hermann Ja ...
of
Neosho, Missouri Neosho (; originally or ) is the most populous city in Newton County, Missouri, United States, which it serves as the county seat. With a population of 12,590 as of the 2020 census, the city is a part of the Joplin, Missouri Metropolitan Stat ...
, was pivotal in the rescue of the French vineyards, as well. Jaeger working with the Missouri state entomologist George Hussman, had already raised vines with resistance to the pest. Indeed, several of the rootstalk varietals T.V. Munson had developed in Texas (Mrs Munson, Muench, and Neva Munson) were grafts with the hardy Neosho hybrids Jaeger had developed in Missouri. Jaeger exported 17 boxcars of his resistant rootstock to France. In 1893, for his contribution to the grape and wine industries of France, Jaeger was awarded the French Legion of Honor - Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur. The grafting method was tested, and proved a success. The process was colloquially termed "reconstitution" by French wine growers. The cure for the disease caused a great division in the wine industry: some, who became known as the "chemists", rejected the grafting solution and persisted with the use of pesticides and chemicals. Those who became grafters were known as "Americanists", or "wood merchants". Following the demonstrated success of grafting in the 1870s and 1880s the immense task of "reconstituting" the majority of France's vineyards began.


Prize

The French government had offered over 320,000 Francs as a reward to whoever could discover a cure for the blight. Having reportedly been the first to suggest the possibility of using the resistant American rootstock, Leo Laliman tried to claim the money, but the French government refused to award it, with the rationale that he had not cured the blight, but rather stopped it from occurring. However, there may have been other reasons for the government denying Laliman the prize: he was mistrusted by several notable parties, and he was thought by many to have originally introduced the pest.


Present day

There is still no remedy, as such, for the ''Phylloxera'', or the disease it brings with it, and it still poses a substantial threat to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock. There is only one European grape vine known to be resistant to the ''Phylloxera'', the Assyrtiko vine, which grows on the
volcanic A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates a ...
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
island of Santorini; however there is speculation that the actual source of this resistance may arise from the volcanic ash in which the vines grow, and not from the vine itself.Thom Elkjer ''Adventures in Wine: True Stories of Vineyards and Vintages Around the World''. Travelers' Tales, 2002. There still exist some vines which have been neither grafted nor destroyed by phylloxera, including some owned by
Bollinger Bollinger () is a French Champagne house, a producer of sparkling wines from the Champagne region. They produce several labels of Champagne under the Bollinger name, including the vintage ''Vieilles Vignes Françaises, Grande Année'' and ''R.D. ...
.


Notes and references

;Specific ;General *Kolleen M. Guy ''When Champagne Became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity''. JHU Press, 2003. * *Gregory McNamee ''Moveable Feasts: The History, Science, And Lore of Food''. Greenwood Press, 2006. *California Dept. of Agriculture, California State Commission of Horticulture ''Biennial Report''. Published 1901. {{Good article 19th century in France French wine Grape pest insects History of wine Viticulture Natural history of Europe 1860s in France 1863 in France 1863 in the environment