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Glaciology (; ) is the scientific study of
glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...
s, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology,
physical geography Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere ...
, geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, biology, and
ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...
. The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of
human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment. It analyzes spatial interdependencies between social ...
and anthropology. The discoveries of water ice on the Moon, Mars,
Europa Europa may refer to: Places * Europe * Europa (Roman province), a province within the Diocese of Thrace * Europa (Seville Metro), Seville, Spain; a station on the Seville Metro * Europa City, Paris, France; a planned development * Europa Clif ...
and
Pluto Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of trans-Neptunian object, bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the S ...
add an extraterrestrial component to the field, which is referred to as "astroglaciology".


Overview

A glacier is an extended mass of ice formed from snow falling and accumulating over a long period of time; glaciers move very slowly, either descending from high mountains, as in valley glaciers, or moving outward from centers of accumulation, as in continental glaciers. Areas of study within glaciology include glacial history and the reconstruction of past glaciation. A glaciologist is a person who studies glaciers. A glacial geologist studies glacial deposits and glacial erosive features on the landscape. Glaciology and glacial geology are key areas of polar research.


Types

Glaciers can be identified by their geometry and the relationship to the surrounding topography. There are two general categories of glaciation which glaciologists distinguish: ''alpine glaciation'', accumulations or "rivers of ice" confined to valleys; and ''continental glaciation'', unrestricted accumulations which once covered much of the northern continents. *Alpine – ice flows down the valleys of mountainous areas and forms a tongue of ice moving towards the plains below. Alpine glaciers tend to make
topography Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sc ...
more rugged by adding and improving the scale of existing features. Various features include large ravines called '' cirques'' and arêtes, which are ridges where the rims of two cirques meet. *Continental – an ice sheet found today, only in high latitudes (
Greenland Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland ...
/
Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest cont ...
), thousands of square kilometers in area and thousands of meters thick. These tend to smooth out the landscapes.


Zones of glaciers

*
Accumulation Accumulation may refer to: Finance * Accumulation function, a mathematical function defined in terms of the ratio future value to present value * Capital accumulation, the gathering of objects of value Science and engineering * Accumulate (highe ...
zone – where the formation of ice is faster than its removal. * Ablation (or wastage) zone – when the sum of melting, calving, and evaporation (sublimation) is greater than the amount of snow added each year.


Glacier equilibrium line and ELA

The glacier equilibrium line is the line separating the glacial accumulation area above from the ablation area below. The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) and its change over the years is a key indicator of the health of a glacier. A long term monitoring of the ELA may be used as indication to climate change.


Movement

When a
glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...
is experiencing an accumulation input by precipitation (snow or refreezing rain) that exceeds the output by ablation, the glacier shows a ''positive glacier mass balance'' and will advance. Conversely, if the loss of volume (from evaporation, sublimation, melting, and calving) exceeds the accumulation, the glacier shows a ''negative glacier mass balance'' and the glacier will melt back. During times in which the volume input to the glacier by precipitation is equivalent to the ice volume lost from calving, evaporation, and melting, the glacier has a steady-state condition. Some glaciers show periods where the glacier is advancing at an extreme rate, that is typically 100 times faster than what is considered normal, it is referred to as a ''surging glacier''. Surge periods may occur at an interval of 10 to 15 years, e.g. on Svalbard. This is caused mainly due to a long lasting accumulation period on subpolar glaciers frozen to the ground in the accumulation area. When the stress due to the additional volume in the accumulation area increases, the pressure melting point of the ice at its base may be reached, the basal glacier ice will melt, and the glacier will surge on a film of meltwater.


Rate of movement

The movement of
glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...
s is usually slow. Its velocity varies from a few centimeters to a few meters per day. The rate of movement depends upon the factors listed below: * Temperature of the ice. A ''polar glacier'' shows cold ice with temperatures well below the freezing point from its surface to its base. It is frozen to its bed. A ''temperate glacier'' is at a melting point temperature throughout the year, from its surface to its base. This allows the glacier to slide on a thin layer of meltwater. Most glaciers in alpine regions are temperate glaciers. *
Gradient In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar-valued differentiable function of several variables is the vector field (or vector-valued function) \nabla f whose value at a point p is the "direction and rate of fastest increase". If the gr ...
of the slope. * Thickness of the glacier * Subglacial water dynamics


Glacial Terminology

; Ablation : Wastage of the glacier through sublimation, ice melting and iceberg calving. ; Ablation zone :Area of a glacier in which the annual loss of ice through ablation exceeds the annual gain from
precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. ...
. ; Arête :An acute ridge of rock where two cirques meet. ;
Bergschrund A bergschrund (from the German for ''mountain cleft'') or rimaye (from French; ) is a crevasse that forms where moving glacier ice separates from the stagnant ice or firn above. It is often a serious obstacle for mountaineers, who sometimes ...
: Crevasse formed near the head of a glacier, where the mass of ice has rotated, sheared and torn itself apart in the manner of a geological fault. ; Cirque, Corrie or cwm : Bowl shaped depression excavated by the source of a glacier. ;
Creep Creep, Creeps or CREEP may refer to: People * Creep, a creepy person Politics * Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP), mockingly abbreviated as CREEP, an fundraising organization for Richard Nixon's 1972 re-election campaign Art ...
: Adjustment to stress at a molecular level. ;
Flow Flow may refer to: Science and technology * Fluid flow, the motion of a gas or liquid * Flow (geomorphology), a type of mass wasting or slope movement in geomorphology * Flow (mathematics), a group action of the real numbers on a set * Flow (psyc ...
: Movement (of ice) in a constant direction. ; Fracture : Brittle failure (breaking of ice) under the stress raised when movement is too rapid to be accommodated by creep. It happens, for example, as the central part of a glacier moves faster than the edges. ; Moraine : Accumulated debris that has been carried by a glacier and deposited at its sides (lateral moraine) or at its foot ( terminal moraine). ; Névé : Area at the top of a glacier (often a cirque) where snow accumulates and feeds the glacier. ; Horn : Spire of rock, also known as a pyramidal peak, formed by the headward erosion of three or more cirques around a single mountain. It is an extreme case of an arête. ; Plucking/Quarrying : Where the
adhesion Adhesion is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another ( cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can ...
of the ice to the rock is stronger than the cohesion of the rock, part of the rock leaves with the flowing ice. ; Tarn : A post-glacial lake in a cirque. ; Tunnel valley : The tunnel that is formed by hydraulic erosion of ice and rock below an ice sheet margin. The tunnel valley is what remains of it in the underlying rock when the ice sheet has melted.


Glacial deposits


Stratified

;
Outwash An outwash plain, also called a sandur (plural: ''sandurs''), sandr or sandar, is a plain formed of glaciofluvial deposits due to meltwater outwash at the terminus of a glacier. As it flows, the glacier grinds the underlying rock surface and ...
sand/gravel :From front of glaciers, found on a plain. ; Kettles :When a lock of stagnant ice leaves a depression or pit. ; Eskers :Steep sided ridges of gravel/sand, possibly caused by streams running under stagnant ice. ; Kames :Stratified drift builds up low, steep hills. ; Varves :Alternating thin sedimentary beds (coarse and fine) of a proglacial lake. Summer conditions deposit more and coarser material and those of the winter, less and finer.


Unstratified

; Till-unsorted :(Glacial flour to boulders) deposited by receding/advancing glaciers, forming moraines, and drumlins. ; Moraines : (Terminal) material deposited at the end; (ground) material deposited as glacier melts; (lateral) material deposited along the sides. ;
Drumlin A drumlin, from the Irish word ''droimnín'' ("littlest ridge"), first recorded in 1833, in the classical sense is an elongated hill in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated ...
s :Smooth elongated hills composed of till. ;
Ribbed moraines A Rogen moraine (also called ribbed moraine) is a subglacially (''i.e.'' under a glacier or ice sheet) formed type of moraine landform,Hättestrand, C. & Kleman, J., 1999. Ribbed moraine formation. ''Quaternary Science Reviews, 18'':43-61 that ma ...
:Large subglacial elongated hills transverse to former ice flow.


See also

* Continental Glaciation * Ice cap *
International Glaciological Society The International Glaciological Society (IGS) was founded in 1936 to provide a focus for individuals interested in glaciology, practical and scientific aspects of snow and ice. It was originally known as the "Association for the Study of Snow an ...
*
International Association of Cryospheric Sciences The International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS) is the eighth association of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). It was launched by the IUGG Council on 4 July 2007, developing from the International Commission o ...
* Irish Sea Glacier * List of glaciers * Cryosphere


Notes


Further reading

*Benn, Douglas I. and David J. A. Evans. '' Glaciers and Glaciation''.
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
;
Arnold Arnold may refer to: People * Arnold (given name), a masculine given name * Arnold (surname), a German and English surname Places Australia * Arnold, Victoria, a small town in the Australian state of Victoria Canada * Arnold, Nova Scotia U ...
, 1998. *Greve, Ralf and Heinz Blatter. ''Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers''.
Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitu ...
etc.; Springer, 2009. *Hambrey, Michael and Jürg Alean. ''Glaciers''. 2nd ed.
Cambridge Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge bec ...
and New York;
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
, 2004. *Hooke, Roger LeB. ''Principles of Glacier Mechanics''. 2nd ed. Cambridge and New York; Cambridge University Press, 2005. *Paterson, W. Stanley B. ''The Physics of Glaciers''. 3rd ed. Oxford etc.; Pergamon Press, 1994. *van der Veen, Cornelis J. ''Fundamentals of Glacier Dynamics''.
Rotterdam Rotterdam ( , , , lit. ''The Dam on the River Rotte (river), Rotte'') is the second largest List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Netherlands. It is in the Prov ...
; A. A. Balkema, 1999. *van der Veen, Cornelis J. ''Fundamentals of Glacier Dynamics''. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton, FL Boca Raton ( ; es, Boca Ratón, link=no, ) is a city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. It was first incorporated on August 2, 1924, as "Bocaratone," and then incorporated as "Boca Raton" in 1925. The population was 97,422 in the ...
; CRC Press, 2013.


External links


International Glaciological Society (IGS)International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS)Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Group, University of Alaska FairbanksArctic and Alpine Research Group, University of AlbertaGlaciers onlineWorld Data Centre for Glaciology, Cambridge, UKNational Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, ColoradoGlobal Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS)Glacial structures – photo atlas North Cascade Glacier Climate ProjectCentre for Glaciology, University of WalesCaltech Glaciology GroupGlaciology Group, University of CopenhagenInstitute of Low Temperature Science, SapporoNational Institute of Polar Research, TokyoGlaciology Group, University of WashingtonGlaciology Laboratory, Universidad de Chile-Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia

Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Centre)

Glaciology Commission

Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics, Univ. of Innsbruck, Austria.
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