Gaius Musonius Rufus (; grc-gre, Μουσώνιος Ῥοῦφος) was a Roman
Stoic philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
during the reign of
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under
Galba. He was allowed to stay in Rome when
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Emp ...
banished all other philosophers from the city in 71 AD although he was eventually banished anyway, returning only after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of
Epictetus and
Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (; el, Δίων Χρυσόστομος ''Dion Chrysostomos''), Dion of Prusa or Cocceianus Dio (c. 40 – c. 115 AD), was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. Eighty of hi ...
.
Life
The son of a Roman
eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in
Volsinii,
Etruria about 20–30 AD. By the time of Nero, he was already famous in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
, where he taught
Stoic philosophy. He was associated with the
Stoic Opposition
The Stoic Opposition is the name given to a group of Stoic philosophers who actively opposed the autocratic rule of certain emperors in the 1st-century, particularly Nero and Domitian. Most prominent among them was Thrasea Paetus, an influential ...
against the perceived tyranny of Nero. He followed
Rubellius Plautus into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting tha ...
, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of
Gyaros
Gyaros ( el, Γυάρος ), also locally known as Gioura ( el, Γιούρα), is an arid, unpopulated, and uninhabited Greek island in the northern Cyclades near the islands of Andros and Tinos, with an area of . It is a part of the municipality ...
(65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in the
Pisonian conspiracy. While Gyaros was "harsh and devoid of human culture", Musonius was able to survive and form a small community of philosophers. He specifically refers to his time in exile in his ninth discourse, pointing out its advantages for a practitioner of Stoicism.
He returned under
Galba (68 AD). When
Marcus Antonius Primus, the general of
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Emp ...
, was marching upon
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by
Vitellius to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of,
Publius Egnatius Celer
Publius Egnatius Celer, (lived c. AD 60), was a Stoic philosopher, who as a result of being a ''delator'', or informer, in the reign of Nero, was sentenced to death in the reign of Vespasian.
Treason charges were brought against Barea Soranus i ...
, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned
Barea Soranus
Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman senator who lived in the reign of Nero. He was suffect consul in 52, but later attracted the hatred of Nero, and upon being condemned to death committed suicide. He was associated with a group of Stoic ...
. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught
Epictetus, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when
Pliny speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.
Writings
It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of ''Discourses'', by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by
Stobaeus. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers.
The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows:
# That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem
# That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue
# That Women Too Should Study Philosophy
# Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons?
# Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice?
# On Training
# That One Should Disdain Hardships
# That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy
# That Exile is not an Evil
# Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury?
# What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher?
# On Sexual Indulgence
# What is the Chief End of Marriage
# Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy?
# Should Every Child that is Born be Raised?
# Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances?
# What is the Best
Viaticum for Old Age?
# On Food
# On Clothing and Shelter
# On Furnishings
# On Cutting the Hair
Philosophy
His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil,
Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. The philosophy he would have everyone cultivate is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but one that everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for himself.
[Heinrich Ritter, ''The History of Ancient Philosophy'', Alexander James William Morrison, tr. (London, 1846), vol. IV, p. 190.] Still, he considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair to grow, and to retire from general society.
At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind.
[Ritter, p. 191.] His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action.
He does not reject
logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the
fallacy which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the
sophists.
[Ritter, p. 192.] He gives only a little attention to the
physical doctrines of the Stoics; he asserts that the
gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown.
The human
soul
In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being".
Etymology
The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest att ...
he considers to be akin to the gods,
and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed.
[Ritter, p. 193.] He strongly asserts the liberty of the rational soul ( el, διάνοια).
Musonius pays much more attention to
ethics
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...
than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and women, should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue.
He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the
mind is filled from
childhood, and the evil habits confirmed by practices.
[Ritter, p. 194.] Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept.
He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.
[Ritter, p. 195.]
A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature.
He combats all
selfishness, and regards
marriage
Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognized union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between ...
not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole
human race.
He zealously protests against the
exposure of children as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of
benevolence
Benevolence or Benevolent may refer to:
* Benevolent (band)
* Benevolence (phrenology), a faculty in the discredited theory of phrenology
* "Benevolent" (song), a song by Tory Lanez
* Benevolence (tax), a forced loan imposed by English kings from ...
.
His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for
diet, the care of the body,
clothing
Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natura ...
, and even
furniture. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the
beard on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body.
He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.
Musonius argued because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue is the same, both should be trained in philosophy.
[Diotima]
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''
Notes
Further reading
Translations
* Cora Lutz, (1947)
''Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates'' Printed in: ''Yale Classical Studies'', Volume X. Edited by A. R. Bellinger. Yale University Press.
* Cynthia King, (2011), ''Musonius Rufus: Lectures and Sayings''. Edited by William B. Irvine. CreateSpace.
Studies
* J. T. Dillon, (2004), ''Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue''. University Press of America.
* L. Dottarelli, (2015), "Musonio l'Etrusco. La filosofia come scienza di vita", ''Annulli Editori'' .
External links
* Diotima
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''
Musonius Rufusentry in the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Online edition of Lectures and Fragments
{{DEFAULTSORT:Musonius Rufus, Gaius
1st-century births
1st-century philosophers
1st-century Romans
Ethicists
Feminist philosophers
Logicians
Male feminists
Members of the Pisonian conspiracy
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Philosophers of sexuality
Philosophers of Roman Italy
Roman-era Stoic philosophers
Virtue ethicists
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Ancient Roman delatores