The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century
Imperial China. Five
dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the
Central Plain, and more than a dozen concurrent dynastic states were established elsewhere, mainly in
South China. It was a prolonged period of multiple political divisions in Chinese imperial history.
Traditionally, the era is seen as beginning with the fall of the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
in 907 and reaching its climax with the founding of the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
in 960. In the following 19 years, Song gradually subdued the remaining states in South China, but the
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
still remained in China's north (eventually succeeded by the
Jin dynasty), and the
Western Xia was eventually established in China's northwest.
Many states had been ''
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with '' de jure'' ("by l ...
'' independent long before 907 as the Tang dynasty's control over its officials waned, but the key event was their recognition as sovereign by foreign powers. After the Tang collapsed, several
warlords of the Central Plain crowned themselves emperor. During the 70-year period, there was near constant warfare between the emerging kingdoms and alliances they formed. All had the ultimate goal of controlling the Central Plain and establishing themselves as the Tang's successor.
The last of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms regimes was
Northern Han, which held out until Song conquered it in 979. For the next several centuries, although the Song controlled much of South China, they coexisted alongside the Liao dynasty, Jin dynasty, and various other regimes in China's north, until finally all of them were unified under the
Yuan dynasty.
Background
Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, the imperial government granted increased powers to the ''
jiedushi
The ''jiedushi'' (), or jiedu, was a title for regional military governors in China which was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissioner", "legate ...
'', the regional military governors. The
An Lushan (755–763) and
Huang Chao rebellions weakened the imperial government, and by the early 10th century the ''jiedushi'' commanded ''de facto'' independence from its authority. In the last decades of the Tang dynasty, they were not even appointed by the central court any more, but developed hereditary systems, from father to son or from patron to protégé. They had their own armies rivaling the "palace armies" and amassed huge wealth, as testified by their sumptuous tombs.
[ The information was taken from Richard L. Davis's introduction.] Due to the decline of Tang central authority after the An Lushan Rebellion, there was growing tendency to superimpose large regional administrations over the old districts and prefectures that had been used since the
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). These administrations, known as circuit commissions, would become the boundaries of the later Southern regimes; many circuit commissioners became the emperors or kings of these states.
The historian Hugh Clark proposed a three-stage model of broad political trends during this time period. The first stage (880–910) consists of the period between the Huang Chao Rebellion and the formal end of the Tang dynasty, which saw chaotic fighting between warlords who controlled approximately one or two prefectures each. The second stage (910–950) saw the various warlords stabilise and gain enough legitimacy to proclaim new dynasties. The third stage (950–979) saw the forceful reunification of China by the
Later Zhou dynasty and its successor the Song dynasty, and the demilitarisation of the provinces. Southern China, divided into several independent dynastic kingdoms, was more stable than the North which saw constant regime change. Consequently, the Southern kingdoms were able to embark on trade, land reclamation and infrastructure projects, laying the groundwork for the Song dynasty economic boom. This economic shift to the south also led to a vast southward migration.
North
According to Nicholas Tackett, the
three provinces of Hebei: Chengde, Youzhou, Weibo, were able to maintain much greater autonomy from the central government in the aftermath of the An Lushan rebellion. With their administration under local military control, these provinces never submitted tax revenues and governorships lapsed into hereditary succession. They engaged in occasional war with the central government, or against each other, and Youzhou seemed to conduct its own foreign policy. This meant that the culture of these northeastern provinces started diverging from the capital. Many of the elites in post-Tang China, including the future emperors of the Song dynasty, came from this region.
The administrations of the Five Dynasties and the early Song dynasty shared a pattern of being disproportionately drawn from the families of military governors in northern and northwestern China (
Hebei,
Shanxi,
Shaanxi), their personal staff, and the bureaucrats who served in the capitals of the Five dynasties. These families had risen to prominence due to the unraveling of central authority after the An Lushan Rebellion, despite lacking esteemed ancestry. The historian
Deng Xiaonan argued that many of these military families, including the
Song imperial family, were of mixed Han Chinese-Turkic-
Kumo Xi
The Kumo Xi (Xu Elina-Qian, p.296b), also known as the Tatabi, were a Mongolic steppe people located in current Northeast China from 207 CE to 907 CE. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207, they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined ...
ancestry.
The term "Five Dynasties" was coined by Song dynasty historians and reflects the view that the successive regimes based in
Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
, controlled the
Central Plain and possessed the
Mandate of Heaven. The first of the Five Dynasties was founded by
Zhu Wen, the rebel defector turned warlord who ultimately ended the Tang dynasty. The rest of the Five Dynasties as well as the Song dynasty all emerged from a military organization originally led by
Shatuo Turks whose commanders replaced each other in frequent
coup d'état. The
Later Tang was founded by
Li Cunxu, the son of Shatuo leader
Li Keyong, who was the main military rival to Zhu Wen in the late Tang. The
Later Jin founder
Shi Jingtang was the son of a Shatuo commander in Li Keyong's army and became the son-in-law of the Later Tang general and emperor
Li Siyuan, who was himself an adopted son of Li Keyong. The
Later Han founder
Liu Zhiyuan was a Shatuo officer under Li Siyuan and Shi Jintang. The father of the
Later Zhou founder
Guo Wei fought in Li Keyong's army and Guo served under Liu Zhiyuan. The
father of Song founder
Zhao Kuangyin served in the armies of Later Tang, Later Han and Later Zhou. Zhao, also a professional soldier, rose through the ranks of the Later Zhou before seizing the throne in a coup at Chenqiao in 960, which ended the era of the Five Dynasties.
The Southern regimes generally had more stable and effective government during this period. The Qing historian
Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) wrote that this period can be compared to the earlier
Warring States period of ancient China, remarking that none of the rulers could be described as "
Son of Heaven". These rulers, despite claiming the status of
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
, sometimes dealt with each other on terms of diplomatic equality out of pragmatic concern. This concept of "sharing the Mandate of Heaven" as "sibling states" was the result of the brief balance of power. After the reunification of China by the Song dynasty, the Song embarked on a special effort to denounce such arrangements.
South
Even the rulers of the Southern states were almost all military leaders from the north with their key officers and elite forces also hailing from the north, since the bulk of the Tang army was based in the north. The founders of Wu and Former Shu were 'rogues' from
Huainan
Huainan () is a prefecture-level city with 3,033,528 inhabitants as of the 2020 census in north-central Anhui province, China. It is named for the Han-era Principality of Huainan. It borders the provincial capital of Hefei to the south, Lu'an ...
and
Xuchang respectively, the founder of Min was a minor government staffer from Huainan, the founder of Wuyue was a 'rogue' from
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
, the founder of Chu was (according to one source) a carpenter from Xuchang, the founder of Jingnan was a slave from
Shanzhou
Shanzhou District, previously known as Shan County or Shanxian or Shaan, is an urban district of Sanmenxia in western Henan, China, bordering Shanxi province to the north.
It is located on the southern bank of the Yellow River and includes th ...
and the founder of Southern Han was a southern tribal chief. The Southern kingdoms were founded by men of low social status who rose up through superior military ability, who were later scorned as "bandits" by future scholars. However, once established, these rulers took great pains to portray themselves as promoters of culture and economic development so as to legitimise their rule; many wooed former Tang courtiers to help administer their states.
The economies of each of the southern regions had prospered in the late Tang. Guangdong and Fujian were the sites of important port cities trading exotic goods, the middle Yangtze and Sichuan were centres of tea and porcelain production, and the Yangtze delta was a center of extremely high agricultural production and an entrepot for the other regions. The regions were economically interdependent. Sui and Tang policies, while paying little attention to developing the south, gave the south room to innovate free of tight administrative controls. The dominant northern officials had been unwilling to serve in the south during the Tang, and so southerners were recruited by the Tang to serve in a local capacity under the "Southern Selection" supplemental system. These southern officials became the administrative core of the Ten Kingdoms and later dominated the bureaucracy by the mid-Song.
Significant ''jiedushi''
North China
*
Wang Rong at Zhenzhou (modern
Zhengding County,
Hebei province)
*
Wang Chuzhi at Dingzhou (modern
Dingzhou,
Hebei)
*
Li Keyong and
Li Cunxu at
Taiyuan (modern Taiyuan,
Shanxi), precursor to
Later Tang
*
Liu Rengong and
Liu Shouguang at
Youzhou (modern
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
), precursor to
Yan
*
Li Maozhen at Fengxiang (modern
Fengxiang County,
Shaanxi province), precursor to
Qi
*
Luo Shaowei at Weibo (modern
Daming County,
Hebei province)
*
Li Sigong at
Dingnan circuit, precursor to
Western Xia
*
Zhang Yichao Zhang may refer to:
Chinese culture, etc.
* Zhang (surname) (張/张), common Chinese surname
** Zhang (surname 章), a rarer Chinese surname
* Zhang County (漳县), of Dingxi, Gansu
* Zhang River (漳河), a river flowing mainly in Henan
* ''Zh ...
at
Guiyi
Guiyi () (Kweiyi) is a town and the seat of Miluo City in Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it border ...
*
Zhu Wen at Bianzhou (modern
Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
,
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
), precursor to
Later Liang
South China
*
Qian Liu at
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
(modern Hangzhou,
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Ji ...
), precursor to
Wuyue
*
Ma Yin at
Tanzhou (modern
Changsha
Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and ...
,
Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangx ...
), precursor to
Chu
*
Wang Shenzhi at
Fuzhou (modern Fuzhou,
Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its ...
), precursor to
Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Amtr ...
*
Liu Yin at
Guangzhou
Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, sou ...
(modern Guangzhou,
Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...
), precursor to
Southern Han
*
Wang Jian at
Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), alternatively romanized as Chengtu, is a sub-provincial city which serves as the capital of the Chinese provin ...
(modern Chengdu,
Sichuan), precursor to
Former Shu
*
Yang Xingmi at
Yangzhou (modern Yangzhou,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
), precursor to
Wu
*
Gao Jixing at
Jingzhou, precursor to
Jingnan
Five Dynasties
Later Liang (907–923)
During the Tang dynasty, the warlord
Zhu Wen was originally a member of
Huang Chao's rebel army, he took on a crucial role in suppressing the Huang Chao Rebellion. For this function, he was awarded the Xuanwu Jiedushi title. Within a few years, he had consolidated his power by destroying neighbours and forcing the move of the imperial capital to
Luoyang
Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyan ...
, which was within his region of influence. In 904, he executed
Emperor Zhaozong of Tang
Emperor Zhaozong of Tang (March 31, 867 – September 22, 904), né Li Jie, name later changed to Li Min and again to Li Ye, was the penultimate emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned from 888 to 904 (although he was briefly deposed ...
and made Zhaozong's 13-year-old son, Ai Di (
Emperor Ai of Tang), a subordinate ruler. Three years later, he induced the boy emperor to abdicate in his favour. He then proclaimed himself emperor, thus beginning the
Later Liang.
Later Tang (923–937)
In the final years of the Tang dynasty, rival warlords declared independence in the provinces they governed—not all of which recognized the emperor's authority.
Li Keyong was the jiedushi for the Hedong circuit in present Shanxi, forming a polity called Jin (晉). His son
Li Cunxu and
Liu Shouguang fiercely fought the regime forces to conquer northern China;
Li Cunxu succeeded. He defeated Liu Shouguang (who had proclaimed a
Yan Empire in 911) in 915, and declared himself emperor in 923; within a few months, he brought down the Later Liang regime. Thus began the
Shatuo Later Tang—the first in a long line of
conquest dynasties
A conquest dynasty () in the history of China refers to a Chinese dynasty established by non-Han ethnicities that ruled parts or all of China proper, the traditional heartland of the Han people, and whose rulers may or may not fully assimilate i ...
. After reuniting much of northern China, in 924 Cunxu received the submission of Shaanxi's
Qi kingdom, and in 925 Cunxu conquered the
Former Shu, a regime that had been set up in
Sichuan.
Later Jin (936–943)
The Later Tang had a few years of relative calm, followed by unrest. In 934, Sichuan again asserted independence. In 936,
Shi Jingtang rebelled against
Li Congke, the fourth emperor of the Later Tang. Shi Jingtang, a
Shatuo jiedushi
The ''jiedushi'' (), or jiedu, was a title for regional military governors in China which was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissioner", "legate ...
from
Taiyuan, was aided by the
Khitan-led
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
in his rebellion. In return for their aid, Shi Jingtang promised annual tribute and the
Sixteen Prefectures (modern northern
Hebei and
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
) to the Khitans. The rebellion succeeded, and Shi Jingtang became emperor in this same year.
Not long after the founding of Later Jin, the Liao came to regard the emperor as a proxy ruler for China. In 943, the Khitans declared war and within three years seized the capital,
Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
, marking the end of Later Jin. But while they had conquered vast regions of China, the Khitans were unable or unwilling to control those regions and retreated from them early in the next year.
Later Han (947–951)
To fill the power vacuum, the jiedushi
Liu Zhiyuan entered the imperial capital in 947 and proclaimed the advent of the
Later Han, establishing a third successive Shatuo reign. This was the shortest of the five dynasties. Following a coup in 951, General
Guo Wei, a
Han Chinese, was enthroned, thus beginning the
Later Zhou. However,
Liu Chong, a member of the Later Han imperial family, established a rival
Northern Han regime in
Taiyuan and requested Khitan aid to defeat the Later Zhou.
Later Zhou (951–960)
After the death of
Guo Wei in 954, his adopted son
Chai Rong
Chai Rong () (27 October 921 – 27 July 959), later known as Guo Rong (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was the second emperor of the Later Zhou dynasty of China, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ...
succeeded the throne and began a policy of expansion and reunification. One month after Chai Rong took the throne, Liu Chong, Emperor of
Northern Han, allied with
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
to launch an assault on Later Zhou. Against the advice of Minister Feng Dao, Chai Rong decided to lead his army against the incursion. When Chai Rong engaged Liu Chong at Gao Ping (in modern Jincheng), two of Chai's generals, Fan Aineng and He Hui, fled from the battlefield along with their troops. At this critical moment, Chai Rong risked his life to break through the defense and crushed Liu's forces. After this campaign, Chai Rong consolidated his power. Between 956 and 958, forces of Later Zhou
conquered much of
Southern Tang, the most powerful regime in southern China, which ceded all the territory north of the
Yangtze in defeat. In 959, Chai Rong attacked the Liao in an attempt to recover territories ceded during the Later Jin. After many victories, he succumbed to illness.
In 960, the general
Zhao Kuangyin staged a coup and took the throne for himself, founding the
Northern Song dynasty
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a ...
. This is the official end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. During the next two decades, Zhao Kuangyin and his successor
Zhao Kuangyi defeated the other remaining regimes in South China, conquering
Northern Han in 979, starting the Song dynasty era in 982.
For the next several centuries, the Song dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Jin dynasty would battle with each other for control over China, until they were eventually all unified under the Mongol
Yuan dynasty.
Ten Kingdoms
Unlike the dynasties of northern China, which succeeded one another in rapid succession, the regimes of
South China were generally concurrent, each controlling a specific geographical area. These were known as "The Ten Kingdoms" (in fact, some claimed the title of Emperor, such as
Former Shu and
Later Shu). Each court was a center of artistic excellence. The period is noted for the vitality of its poetry and for its economic prosperity. Commerce grew so quickly that there was a shortage of metallic currency. This was partly addressed by the creation of bank drafts, or "flying money" (''feiqian''), as well as by certificates of deposit. Wood block printing became common during this period, 500 years before
Johannes Gutenberg's press.
The Ten Kingdoms were:
*
Yang Wu
Wu (), also referred to as Huainan (), Hongnong (), Southern Wu (), or Yang Wu (楊吳), was one of the Ten Kingdoms in eastern China which was in existence from 907 to 937. Its capital was Jiangdu Municipality () (modern Yangzhou in Jiangsu P ...
(907–937)
*
Wuyue (907–978)
*
Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Amtr ...
(909–945)
*
Ma Chu (907–951)
*
Southern Han (917–971)
*
Former Shu (907–925)
*
Later Shu (934–965)
*
Jingnan (924–963)
*
Southern Tang (937–976)
*
Northern Han (951–979)
Only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era's name. Some historians, such as
Bo Yang, count eleven, including
Yan and
Qi but not the
Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also coincided with the founding of the
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
in the north, and the
Dali Kingdom in the southwest.
Other regimes during this period include
Zhao Zhao may refer to:
* Zhao (surname) (赵), a Chinese surname
** commonly spelled Chao in Taiwan or up until the early 20th century in other regions
** Chiu, from the Cantonese pronunciation
** Cho (Korean surname), represent the Hanja 趙 (Chine ...
, Yiwu Jiedushi,
Dingnan Jiedushi, Wuping Jiedushi,
Qingyuan Jiedushi,
Yin,
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom,
Guiyi Circuit, and
Xiliangfu.
Yang Wu
The
Yang Wu
Wu (), also referred to as Huainan (), Hongnong (), Southern Wu (), or Yang Wu (楊吳), was one of the Ten Kingdoms in eastern China which was in existence from 907 to 937. Its capital was Jiangdu Municipality () (modern Yangzhou in Jiangsu P ...
(902–937) was established in modern-day
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
,
Anhui, and
Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
. It was founded by
Yang Xingmi, who became a
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
military governor in 892. The capital was initially at Guangling (present-day
Yangzhou) and later moved to Jinling (present-day
Nanjing). The kingdom fell in 937 when it was taken from within by the founder of the
Southern Tang.
Wuyue
The
Wuyue was the longest-lived (907–978) and among the most powerful of the southern states. Wuyue was known for its learning and culture. It was founded by
Qian Liu, who set up his capital at Xifu (modern-day
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
). It was based mostly in modern Zhejiang province but also held parts of southern
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
. Qian Liu was named the Prince of Yue by the Tang emperor in 902; the Prince of Wu was added in 904. After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, he declared himself king of Wuyue. Wuyue survived until the eighteenth year of the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
, when Qian Shu surrendered to the expanding dynasty.
Min
The
Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Amtr ...
(909–945) was founded by Wang Shenzhi, who named himself the Prince of Min with its capital at Changle (present-day
Fuzhou). One of Shenzhi's sons proclaimed the independent state of Yin in the northeast of Min territory. The
Southern Tang took that territory after the Min asked for help. Despite declaring loyalty to the neighboring
Wuyue, the Southern Tang finished its conquest of Min in 945.
Southern Han
The
Southern Han (917–971) was founded in
Guangzhou
Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, sou ...
by
Liu Yan. His brother,
Liu Yin, was named regional governor by the Tang court. The kingdom included
Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...
,
Guangxi, and
Hainan. It was finally conquered by Song dynasty.
Ma Chu
The
Ma Chu (927–951) was founded by
Ma Yin with the capital at
Changsha
Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and ...
. The kingdom held Hunan and northeastern
Guangxi. Ma was named regional military governor by the Tang court in 896, and named himself the Prince of Chu with the fall of the Tang in 907. This status as the Prince of Chu was confirmed by the Southern Tang in 927. The
Southern Tang absorbed the state in 951 and moved the royal family to its capital in
Nanjing, although Southern Tang rule of the region was temporary, as the next year former Chu military officers under the leadership of
Liu Yan seized the territory. In the waning years of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the region was ruled by
Zhou Xingfeng. In 963, the region was annexed by Song dynasty.
Northern Han
Though considered one of the ten kingdoms, the
Northern Han was based in the traditional Shatuo stronghold of
Shanxi. It was founded by Liu Min (), formerly known as Liu Chong (), after the
Later Han fell to the Han Chinese-led
Later Zhou in 951. With the protection of the powerful Liao dynasty, the Northern Han maintained nominal independence until the Song dynasty wrested it from the Khitans in 979.
Jingnan (also known as Nanping)
The smallest of the southern states,
Jingnan (924–963), was founded by
Gao Jichang
Gao Jixing (高季興) (858 – January 28, 929), né Gao Jichang (高季昌), known for some time as Zhu Jichang (朱季昌), courtesy name Yisun (貽孫), formally Prince Wuxin of Chu (楚武信王), was the founder of Jingnan, also known as Nan ...
, a former general of Liang. It was based in Jiangling and held two other districts southwest of present-day
Wuhan in
Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The p ...
. Gao was in the service of the
Later Liang (the successor of the Tang in North China). Gao's successors claimed the title of King of Nanping after the fall of the Later Liang in 924. It was a small and weak kingdom, and thus tried to maintain good relations with each of the Five Dynasties. The kingdom fell to advancing armies of the Song in 963.
Former Shu
Former Shu (907–925) was founded after the fall of the Tang dynasty by Wang Jian, who held his court in
Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), alternatively romanized as Chengtu, is a sub-provincial city which serves as the capital of the Chinese provin ...
. The kingdom held most of present-day
Sichuan, western
Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The p ...
, and parts of southern
Gansu and
Shaanxi. Wang was named military governor of western Sichuan by the Tang court in 891. The kingdom fell when his son surrendered in the face of an advance by the
Later Tang in 925.
Later Shu
The
Later Shu (935–965) is essentially a resurrection of the previous Shu state that had fallen a decade earlier to the
Later Tang. Because the Later Tang was in decline and Li Cunxu was killed in a revolt, Meng Zhixiang found the opportunity to reassert Shu's independence. Like the Former Shu, the capital was at Chengdu and it basically controlled the same territory as its predecessor. The kingdom was ruled well until forced to succumb to Song armies in 965.
Southern Tang
The
Southern Tang (937–975) was the successor state of
Wu as
Li Bian (Emperor Liezu) took the state over from within in 937. Expanding from the original domains of
Wu, it eventually took over Yin, Min, and Chu, holding present-day southern Anhui, southern Jiangsu, much of Jiangxi, Hunan, and eastern Hubei at its height. The kingdom became nominally subordinate to the expanding Song in 961 and was invaded outright in 975, when it was formally absorbed into Song China.
Transitions between the Ten Kingdoms
Although more stable than northern China as a whole, southern China was also torn apart by warfare. Wu quarreled with its neighbours, a trend that continued as Wu was replaced with Southern Tang. In the 940s Min and Chu underwent internal crises which Southern Tang handily took advantage of, destroying Min in 945 and Chu in 951. Remnants of Min and Chu, however, survived in the form of
Qingyuan Jiedushi and Wuping Jiedushi for many years after. With this, Southern Tang became the undisputedly most powerful regime in southern China. However, it was unable to defeat incursions by the Later Zhou between 956 and 958, and ceded all of its land north of the
Yangtze River.
The Song dynasty, established in 960, was determined to reunify China. Jingnan and Wuping Jiedushi were swept away in 963, Later Shu in 965, Southern Han in 971, and Southern Tang in 975. Finally, Wuyue and Qingyuan Jiedushi gave up their land to Northern Song in 978, bringing all of southern China under the control of the central government.
In common with other periods of fragmentation, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period resulted in a division between
northern and southern China. The greater stability of the Ten Kingdoms, especially the longevity of Wuyue and Southern Han, would contribute to the development of distinct regional identities within China. The distinction was reinforced by the ''
Old History'' and the ''
New History''. Written from the northern viewpoint, these chronicles organized the history around the Five Dynasties (the north), presenting the Ten Kingdoms (the south) as illegitimate, self-absorbed and indulgent.
Culture
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period turned away from the international cultural mood of the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
and appears as a transition towards the solidified national culture of the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
. Throughout the period, there was marked cultural and economic growth, rather than decline.
[ Dudbridge actually quotes Reischauer's ''Ennin's Travels''.]
Several Northern dynasties originated in the northeast, and centralisation of the north led to a migration of provincial elites into the capital, particularly northeasterners, creating a new metropolitan culture.
[ After the unification of China by the Song dynasty, the culture, arts and literature of the Southern states were incorporated into the new regime. The Song dynasty adopted a distinctively Southern Chinese cultural outlook. The preserved cultural traditions of Southern Tang, Wu Yue and Later Shu were used to rebuild the cultural landscape of the north. Southern libraries were transported north, Southeastern architecture was promoted in the new capital, and Southeastern Buddhist icons, clergy and relics were concentrated in the new capital so as to reintegrate these traditions into the imperial culture. This was distinct from the five Northern dynasties, who never supported extended monastic lineage networks but instead typically sought to restrict them and draw on their economic and military resources.
Although short, the period saw cultural innovations in different areas. Pottery saw the appearance of "white ceramics"/ In painting, the "varied landscape" of China was inspired by Taoism. It emphasized the sacredness of mountains as places between heaven and earth and depicted the natural world as a source of harmony.]
Law
In later tradition, the Five Dynasties is viewed as a period of judicial abuse and excessive punishment. This view reflects both actual problems with the administration of justice and the bias of Confucian historians, who disapproved of the decentralization and militarization that characterized this period. While Tang procedure called for delaying executions until appeals were exhausted, this was not generally the case in the Five Dynasties.[ John W. Chaffee, Denis Twitchett, ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume 5, The Five Dynasties and Sung China, 960–1279 AD, Part 2'', Cambridge University Press, 5 Mar 2015, McKnight, Brian, "Chapter 4: Chinese law and the legal system"]
Other abuses included the use of severe torture. The Later Han was the most notorious dynasty in this regard. Suspects could be tortured to death with long knives and nails. The military officer in charge of security of the capital is said to have executed suspects without inquiry.
The Tang code of 737 was the basic statutory law for this period, together supplemental edicts and collections. The Later Liang promulgated a code in 909. This code was blamed for delays in the administration of justice and said to be excessively harsh with respect to economic crimes. The Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Zhou also produced recompilations. The Later Han was in power too briefly to make a mark on the legal system.
See also
* Timeline of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
This is a timeline of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–979), which followed the collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907 AD. The Five Dynasties refer to the succession of dynasties which ruled northern China following the Tang collapse whil ...
* Annam (Chinese province)
Annan () was the southernmost administrative division of the Tang dynasty and Wu Zhou dynasty of China from 679 to 866, located in modern-day Vietnam. Annam is the Vietnamese form of the Chinese name Annan, which means "the Pacified South" or ...
* Chinese sovereign
* Conquest of Southern Tang by Song
* Family trees of the emperors of the Five Dynasties
* Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
* Dali Kingdom
* Old History of the Five Dynasties
* Zizhi Tongjian
* Tibetan Empire
References
Further reading
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External links
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Dynasties in Chinese history
Former countries in Chinese history
10th century in China
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Geography of China
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907 establishments
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10th-century disestablishments in China
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