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Franz Joseph Gall or Franz Josef Gall (; 9 March 175822 August 1828) was a German
neuroanatomist Neuroanatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defin ...
,
physiologist Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and ...
, and pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the
brain The brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It consists of nervous tissue and is typically located in the head (cephalization), usually near organs for ...
. Claimed as the founder of the
pseudoscience Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable cl ...
of
phrenology Phrenology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the Human brain, brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific ...
, Gall was an early and important researcher in his fields. His contributions to the field of
neuropsychology Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how a person's cognition and behavior are related to the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Professionals in this branch of psychology focus on how injuries or illnesses of the brai ...
were controversial at the time and are now widely referred to as pseudoscience. However, Gall's study of phrenology helped establish psychology, contributed to the
emergence In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when a complex entity has properties or behaviors that its parts do not have on their own, and emerge only when they interact in a wider whole. Emergence plays a central rol ...
of the naturalistic approach to the study of man, and played an important part in the development of evolutionist theories, anthropology, and sociology.


Early life

Gall was born in the village of
Tiefenbronn Tiefenbronn is a municipality in the Enz district of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. History In 1806, Tiefenbronn became a possession of the Grand Duchy of Baden at the expense of the . It was first assigned to the district of Pforzheim in 1806 an ...
to a wealthy
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
wool merchant. The Galls, originally a noble family from Lombardy, had been the leading family in the area for over a century. His father was the mayor of Tiefenbronn and he was one of 12 children, only 7 of whom lived to adulthood. Gall's scientific inquiry began in his youth. As a boy, he was fascinated by the differences between himself, his siblings, and his classmates. He developed an early interest in the brain after making a connection between one classmate's odd shaped skull and advanced language abilities. It is being said, that his first ideas about functional localization came from noticing that classmates who excelled at memory tasks had prominent facial features. He enjoyed collecting and categorizing plants and animals. He also realized the importance of observation as a scientific technique at a young age.


Education and early career

As the second eldest son, he was intended for the priesthood but chose instead to study medicine at the
University of Strasbourg The University of Strasbourg (, Unistra) is a public research university located in Strasbourg, France, with over 52,000 students and 3,300 researchers. Founded in the 16th century by Johannes Sturm, it was a center of intellectual life during ...
. In his advanced studies, he again made observations about his classmates. He noticed that many of the particularly bright students had prominent eyeballs and concluded that this could not be purely coincidental. He later completed his degree in
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
,
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
. While in medical school, he studied under
Johann Hermann Johann, or Jean-Frederic, Hermann, or Herrmann, (31 December 1738 in Barr, Alsace – 4 October 1800 in Strasbourg) was a French physician and naturalist Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi ...
and
Maximilian Stoll Maximilian Stoll (October 12, 1742 – May 25, 1787) was an Austrian physician who was a native of Erzingen, Baden-Württemberg. Stoll originally trained as a theologian, with his interests later turning to medicine, and in 1776 attained a profe ...
who impressed upon him the importance of natural observation. He took his first job at Lunatic Asylum making observations about the insane. He then opened up his own successful private practice and became so popular he even gave well attended lectures to the public. He was offered the position as head Austrian Court physician but decided to remain in private practice and research.


Contributions to phrenology

Based on his early observations about the skull sizes and facial features of his classmates, Gall developed the theory of Organology and the method of Cranioscopy that would later be known as
Phrenology Phrenology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the Human brain, brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific ...
. Gall's version of Organology states that the mind is a collection of independent entities housed within the brain. Cranioscopy is a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull. During his lifetime, Gall collected and observed over 120 skulls in order to test his hypotheses. Gall believed that the bumps and uneven geography of the human skull were caused by pressure exerted from the brain underneath. He divided the brain into sections that corresponded to certain behaviors and traits that he called fundamental faculties. This is referred to as localization of function. Gall believed there were 27 fundamental faculties, among them were: recollection of people, mechanical ability, talent for poetry, love of property, and even a murder instinct. Based on the surface of a person's skull, Gall could make assumptions about that person's fundamental faculties and therefore their character. Gall disagreed with
Philippe Pinel Philippe Pinel (; 20 April 1745 â€“ 25 October 1826) was a French physician, precursor of psychiatry and incidentally a zoologist. He was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological approach to the custody and care of ps ...
and Peter Camper that the larger brain the larger one's intellectual power. However, after numerous dissections and observations he was able to assert that a mature skull under 14 inches in circumference was not able to function normally.


Relationship with Johann Spurzheim

In 1800,
Johann Spurzheim Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (31 December 1776 – 10 November 1832) was a German physician who became one of the chief proponents of phrenology, which was developed c. 1800 by Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Biography Spurzheim was born near Tr ...
attended one of Gall's public lectures and was hired as an assistant to help with public medical demonstrations. In 1804, he became Gall's full-time research partner. They worked together for years to develop theories about brain localization and function. In 1813, Spurzheim separated from Gall in order to make a name for himself in Britain. Gall would later accuse Spurzheim of plagiarism and perverting his work. It was Spurzheim who would give the name
phrenology Phrenology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the Human brain, brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific ...
to Gall's theories.


Other achievements

Other than his contributions to phrenology, Gall is lesser known for his other achievements. While developing his theories on localization of function, Gall significantly advanced the science of dissection. Instead of slicing randomly, as had been the practice in previous years, Gall's method involved slow exploration of the entire brain structure and the separation of individual fibers. This shift in methodology was extremely influential in future discoveries of the brain. Gall also researched and theorized about language, communication, and the brain. He argued that
pantomime Pantomime (; informally panto) is a type of musical comedy stage production designed for family entertainment, generally combining gender-crossing actors and topical humour with a story more or less based on a well-known fairy tale, fable or ...
, or the science of gesture, was a universal language for all animals and humans. He believed every living thing was born with the ability to understand gestures on some level. In 1823, he was elected a foreign member of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
. He published a book titled ''On the Functions of the Brain and of Each of Its parts: With Observations on the Possibility of Determining the Instincts, Propensities, and Talents, Or the Moral and Intellectual Dispositions of Men and Animals, by the Configuration of the Brain and Head'' detailing his vast research on brain function and localization. It was translated to English in 1835 by Lewis Winslow.


Reception and controversy

Gall's concepts on brain localization were revolutionary, and led to many religious leaders and scientists to take exception to his theories. The
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
considered his theory as contrary to the established tenets of Catholicism. Established science also condemned these ideas for lack of scientific proof of his theory. Still others attempted to discredit Gall because they believed he had not given rightful credit to the theories and scientists who influenced him. French scientist
Étienne-Jean Georget Étienne-Jean Georget (2 April 1795 – 14 May 1828) was a French psychiatrist. He is known for writing on monomania. He is also the pioneer of forensic psychiatry, and was the first psychiatrist to discuss the defence of insanity to criminal cha ...
accused Gall of stealing
Charles Bonnet Charles Bonnet (; 13 March 1720 – 20 May 1793) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan natural history, naturalist and philosophical methodology, philosophical writer. He is responsible for coining the term ''phyllotaxis'' to describe the arrangement ...
's basic idea of brain localization that he had written about over 60 years earlier. His ideas were also not acceptable to the court of
Emperor Joseph II Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Holy Roman Emperor from 18 August 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his death. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor F ...
(the brother of
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
). The Austrian government accused Gall of being a materialist and banned his ideas because of their threat to public morality. Due to this opposition, Gall left his lecturer position in Austria. He sought a teaching position in Germany and eventually settled in Paris. Revolutionary France was most likely the most hospitable place for Gall's theories. However,
Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
, the ruling
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
, and the scientific establishment led by the
Institute of France The ; ) is a French learned society, grouping five , including the . It was established in 1795 at the direction of the National Convention. Located on the Quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, the institute manages approximately 1 ...
, pronounced his science as invalid. Despite all this, Gall was able to secure a comfortable existence on the basis of his speciality. He became a celebrity of sorts as he was accepted into Parisian intellectual salons. Physiologist Jean Pierre Flourens emerged as one of the sharpest critics of Gall's theories, testing them on animals by removing portions of the brains of dogs, rabbits, and birds to examine how the remaining sections functioned. Flourens published his findings in two separate articles, attacking Gall's theory that the brain acted as discrete parts instead of as a whole unit. One interesting influence was on psychiatry, where the South Italian psychiatrist Biagio Gioacchino Miraglia proposed a new classification of mental illness based on brain functions as they were conceived in Gall's phrenology.


Legacy

In spite of many problems associated with his work, Gall made significant contributions to the field of neurological science. He died in Paris, on 22 August 1828. Although married, he remained childless. Some direct descendants of his brothers lived in Germany until 1949. A collection of his skulls can be seen at the Rollett Museum in
Baden bei Wien Baden (Central Bavarian: ''Bodn''), unofficially distinguished from Baden (disambiguation), other Badens as Baden bei Wien (Baden near Vienna), is a spa town in Austria. It serves as the capital of Baden (district of Austria), Baden District in t ...
, Austria, where several of his relatives now live. Today, phrenology is thought of as a huge mis-step by the scientific community. The idea that a person's personality could be determined by the shape of their skull has been repeatedly disproven.Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). ''An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology''. Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi: doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011 But at the time, Gall's arguments were persuasive and intriguing. Even though phrenology is now known to be incorrect, Gall did set the groundwork for modern neuroscience by spreading the idea of functional localization within the brain. The misuse of Gall's ideas and work to justify discrimination were deliberately furthered by his associates, including
Johann Spurzheim Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (31 December 1776 – 10 November 1832) was a German physician who became one of the chief proponents of phrenology, which was developed c. 1800 by Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Biography Spurzheim was born near Tr ...
. Later, others tried to improve on his theories with systems such as
characterology Characterology () is the academic study of character which was prominent in German-speaking countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is considered a historic branch of personality psychology, which extended into psychoanalysi ...
. Gall's theories had an influence both on the Italian criminologist
Cesare Lombroso Cesare Lombroso ( , ; ; born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 â€“ 19 October 1909) was an Italian eugenicist, criminologist, phrenologist, physician, and founder of the Italian school of criminology. He is considered the founder of m ...
and on his French rival, Alexandre Lacassagne. He also influenced the French anatomist,
Paul Broca Pierre Paul Broca (, also , , ; 28 June 1824 – 9 July 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. He is best known for his research on Broca's area, a region of the frontal lobe that is named after him. Broca's area is involve ...
.


Notes


References

* Chenevix, R., "Gall and Spurzheim — Phrenology", ''The Foreign Quarterly Review'', Vol.2, No.3, (1828), pp. 1–59. * Colbert, Charles. (1997). ''A measure of Perfection: Phrenology and the Fine Arts in America''. The University of North Carolina Press. * Combe, G., ''Essays on Phrenology, or An Inquiry into the Principles and Utility of the System of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, and Into the Objections Made Against It'', H.C Carey and I. Lea, (Philadelphia), 1822. * Davies, John D. (1955). ''Phrenology: Fad and Science''. Yale University Press. * Eling, Paul. (1994). ''Reader in the History of Aphasia: From Franz Gall to Norman Geschwind''. John Benjamins Publishing. * Forster, T., "Observations on a New System of Phrenology, or the Anatomy and Physiology of the Brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim", ''Philosophical Magazine and Journal'', Vol.45, No.201, (January 1815), pp. 44–50.
Gall, F.J. (1798). Schreiben über seinen bereits geendigten Prodromus über die Verichtungen des Gehirns der Menschen und der Thiere an Herrn Jos. Fr. von Retzer. ''Der neue Teutsche Merkur vom Jahre 1798'', 3(12), (December 1798), pp.311–332
:
Translation at pp. 143–152 o
Goyder, D.G. (1857). ''My Battle for Life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist''. London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co.
* Gall, Franz Josef (W. Lewis, trans.) (1835), ''On the Functions of the Brain and of Each of its Parts: With Observations on the Possibility of Determining the Instincts, Propensities, and Talents, or the Moral and Intellectual Dispositions of Men and Animals, by the Configuration of the Brain and Head n Six Volumes': **Volume I
''On the Origin of the Moral Qualities and Intellectual Faculties of Man, and the Conditions of their Manifestation'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
**Volume II
''On the Organ of the Moral Qualities and Intellectual Faculties, and the Plurality of the Cerebral Organs'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
**Volume III
''The Influence of the Brain on the Form of the Head: The Difficulties and Means of Determining the Fundamental Qualities and Faculties, and of Discovering the Seat of their Organs: Exposition of the Fundamental Qualities and Faculties, and their Seat, or Oganology'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
**Volume IV
''Organology; or, An Exposition of the Instincts, Propensities, Sentiments, and Talents, or of the Moral Qualities, and the Fundamental Intellectual Faculties in Man and Animals, and the Seat of their Organs'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
**Volume V
''The Influence of the Brain on the Form of the Head: The Difficulties and Means of Determining the Fundamental Qualities and Faculties, and of Discovering the Seat of their Organs: Exposition of the Fundamental Qualities and Faculties, and their Seat, or Oganology'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
**Volume VI
''Critical Review of some Anatomico-Physiological Works; With an Explanation of a New Philosophy of the Moral Qualities and Intellectual Faculties'', Boston, MA: Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
* Livianos-Aldana, Lorenzo; Rojo-Moreno, Luis; Sierra-SanMiguel, Pilar (2007). "Gall and the phrenological movement". ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', Vol 164(3) * Spoerl, H.D., "Faculties versus Traits: Gall's Solution", ''Journal of Personality'', Vol.4, No.3, (March 1936), pp. 216–231. * Temkin, O., "Gall and the Phrenological Movement", ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'', Vol.21, No.3, (May–June 1947), pp. 275–321. * Tomlinson, Stephen. (2005). ''Head masters: phrenology, secular education, and nineteenth-century social thought''. The University of Alabama Press. * Van Wyhe, John. (2002). "The authority of human nature: the Schädellehre of Franz Joseph Gall. ''British Journal for the History of Science''.
von Retzer, J.F., "Antwort an Herrn Doktor Gall", ''Der neue Teutsche Merkur vom Jahre 1798'', 3(12), (December 1798), pp. 332–335.


External links


The History of Phrenology on the Web
by John van Wyhe, PhD. {{DEFAULTSORT:Gall, Franz Joseph 1758 births 1828 deaths People from Enzkreis German Roman Catholics German neuroscientists History of neuroscience Phrenology Phrenologists German philosophers of mind Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery German physiologists 18th-century German biologists