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The history of architecture traces the changes in
architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelter and protection. The term "architecture" generally refers to buildings, but in its essence is much broader, including fields we now consider specialized forms of practice, such as
urbanism Urbanism is the study of how inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities, interact with the built environment. It is a direct component of disciplines such as urban planning, which is the profession focusing on the physical design and ...
, civil engineering,
naval A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It in ...
, military, and
landscape architecture Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general engineering of various structures for constructio ...
. Trends in architecture were influenced, among other factors, by technological innovations, particularly in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. The improvement and/or use of
steel Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resist ...
,
cast iron Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impuriti ...
, tile,
reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and ferroconcrete, is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having hig ...
, and glass helped for example
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau (; ) is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. The style is known by different names in different languages: in German, in Italian, in Catalan, and also known as the Modern ...
appear and made Beaux Arts more grandiose.


Neolithic

Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg,
Göbekli Tepe Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 and 8000 BCE, th ...
(
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
), 9500-8000 BC Hemudu Site Museum, 2017-08-12 13.jpg, Reconstructed wooden house (
Hemudu The Hemudu culture (5500 BC to 3300 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao, Zhejiang, China. The culture may be divided into early and late phases, before and after 4000 BC respect ...
,
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
), 5000-4500 BC 2018 07 12 Schottland (90) Skara Brae.jpg,
Skara Brae Skara Brae is a stone-built Neolithic settlement, located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of Mainland, the largest island in the Orkney archipelago of Scotland. Consisting of ten clustered houses, made of flagstones, in earthen dams t ...
(
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a Anglo-Scottish border, border with England to the southeast ...
), 3200-2200 BC Ireland 2010 etc 079.jpg, Decorated stone,
Newgrange Newgrange ( ga, Sí an Bhrú) is a prehistoric monument in County Meath in Ireland, located on a rise overlooking the River Boyne, west of Drogheda. It is an exceptionally grand passage tomb built during the Neolithic Period, around 3200 B ...
(
Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the s ...
), 3200-3100 BC
Architectural advances are an important part of the
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several par ...
period (10,000-2000 BC), during which some of the major innovations of human history occurred. The domestication of plants and animals, for example, led to both new economics and a new relationship between people and the world, an increase in community size and permanence, a massive development of material culture and new social and ritual solutions to enable people to live together in these communities. New styles of individual structures and their combination into settlements provided the buildings required for the new lifestyle and economy, and were also an essential element of change. Although many dwellings belonging to all prehistoric periods and also some clay models of dwellings have been uncovered enabling the creation of faithful reconstructions, they seldom included elements that may relate them to art. Some exceptions are provided by wall decorations and by finds that equally apply to Neolithic and
Chalcolithic The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and  ''líthos'', "Rock (geology), stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin ''wikt:aeneus, aeneus'' "of copper"), is an list of archaeologi ...
rites and art. In South and Southwest Asia, Neolithic cultures appear soon after 10,000 BC, initially in the
Levant The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is eq ...
(
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) denotes the first stage of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, in early Levantine and Anatolian Neolithic culture, dating to years ago, that is, 10,000–8,800 BCE. Archaeological remains are located in the Levantine and U ...
and
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) is part of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, a Neolithic culture centered in upper Mesopotamia and the Levant, dating to years ago, that is, 8800–6500 BC. It was typed by British archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon during ...
) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by c. 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes include the Starčevo-Koros (Cris),
Linearbandkeramic The Linear Pottery culture (LBK) is a major archaeological horizon of the European Neolithic period, flourishing . Derived from the German ''Linearbandkeramik'', it is also known as the Linear Band Ware, Linear Ware, Linear Ceramics or Inc ...
, and
Vinča Vinča ( sr-cyr, Винча, ) is a suburban settlement of Belgrade, Serbia. It is part of the municipality of Grocka. Vinča-Belo Brdo, an important archaeological site that gives its name to the Neolithic Vinča culture, is located in the vi ...
). Neolithic settlements and "cities" include: *
Göbekli Tepe Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 and 8000 BCE, th ...
in Turkey, ca. 9,000 BC *
Jericho Jericho ( ; ar, أريحا ; he, יְרִיחוֹ ) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank. It is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It is the administrative seat of the Jericho G ...
in the Levant, Neolithic from around 8,350 BC, arising from the earlier
Epipaleolithic In archaeology, the Epipalaeolithic or Epipaleolithic (sometimes Epi-paleolithic etc.) is a period occurring between the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic during the Stone Age. Mesolithic also falls between these two periods, and the two are someti ...
Natufian culture The Natufian culture () is a Late Epipaleolithic archaeological culture of the Levant, dating to around 15,000 to 11,500 years ago. The culture was unusual in that it supported a sedentary or semi-sedentary population even before the introducti ...
* Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. 8,000 BC *
Çatalhöyük Çatalhöyük (; also ''Çatal Höyük'' and ''Çatal Hüyük''; from Turkish ''çatal'' "fork" + ''höyük'' " tumulus") is a tell of a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from ...
in
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, 7,500 BC *
Mehrgarh Mehrgarh (; ur, ) is a Neolithic archaeological site (dated ) situated on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan in Pakistan. It is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River and between the modern-day Pakistani cities of Quett ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-la ...
, 7,000 BC *
Knap of Howar The Knap of Howar () on the island of Papa Westray in Orkney, Scotland is a Neolithic farmstead which may be the oldest preserved stone house in northern Europe. Radiocarbon dating shows that it was occupied from 3700 BC to 2800 BC, earlier tha ...
and
Skara Brae Skara Brae is a stone-built Neolithic settlement, located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of Mainland, the largest island in the Orkney archipelago of Scotland. Consisting of ten clustered houses, made of flagstones, in earthen dams t ...
, the
Orkney Islands Orkney (; sco, Orkney; on, Orkneyjar; nrn, Orknøjar), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of the island of Great Britain. Orkney is 10 miles (16 km) north ...
,
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a Anglo-Scottish border, border with England to the southeast ...
, from 3,500 BC * over 3,000 settlements of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, some with populations up to 15,000 residents, flourished in present-day
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
,
Moldova Moldova ( , ; ), officially the Republic of Moldova ( ro, Republica Moldova), is a Landlocked country, landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The List of states ...
and
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inva ...
from 5,400 to 2,800 BC.


Antiquity


Mesopotamian

Assyrian palaces had a large public court with a suite of apartments on the east side and a series of large banqueting halls on the south side. This was to become the traditional plan of Assyrian palaces, built and adorned for the glorification of the king. Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in some palaces. Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin 048.jpg, Columns with clay mosaic cones from the
Eanna E-anna ( sux, , ''house of heavens''), also referred to as the Temple of Inanna, was an ancient Sumerian temple in Uruk. Considered "the residence of Inanna" and Anu, it is mentioned several times in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh The ''Epic ...
precinct in
Uruk Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia) situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates River on the dried-up ancient channel of the Euphrates east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq ...
, in southern Mesopotamia (
Pergamon Museum The Pergamon Museum (; ) is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin. It was built from 1910 to 1930 by order of German Emperor Wilhelm II according to plans by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann in Stripped Clas ...
, Berlin,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
), 3600-3200 BC File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg, The
Ziggurat of Ur The Ziggurat (or Great Ziggurat) of Ur ( Sumerian: "Etemenniguru", meaning "temple whose foundation creates aura") is a Neo-Sumerian ziggurat in what was the city of Ur near Nasiriyah, in present-day Dhi Qar Province, Iraq. The structure ...
, 21st century BC, Tell el-Muqayyar (
Dhi Qar Province Dhi Qar Governorate ( ar, ذي قار, translit=Thi Qār, ) is a governorate in southern Iraq. The provincial capital is Nasiriyah. Prior to 1976 the governorate was known as Muntafiq Governorate. Thi Qar was the heartland of the ancient Iraqi civ ...
,
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
) File:Ishtar gate in Pergamon museum in Berlin..jpg,
Reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology *Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Union ...
of the
Ishtar Gate The Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon (in the area of present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq). It was constructed circa 575 BCE by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II on the north side of the city. It was par ...
( Babylonian); 605-539 BC; glazed bricks;
Pergamon Museum The Pergamon Museum (; ) is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin. It was built from 1910 to 1930 by order of German Emperor Wilhelm II according to plans by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann in Stripped Clas ...
( Berlin, Germany)
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
is most noted for its construction of mud-brick buildings and the construction of
ziggurat A ziggurat (; Cuneiform: 𒅆𒂍𒉪, Akkadian: ', D-stem of ' 'to protrude, to build high', cognate with other Semitic languages like Hebrew ''zaqar'' (זָקַר) 'protrude') is a type of massive structure built in ancient Mesopotamia. It has ...
s, occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city of
Uruk Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia) situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates River on the dried-up ancient channel of the Euphrates east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq ...
had a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known. The word ''ziggurat'' is an anglicized form of the Akkadian word ''ziqqurratum'', the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verb ''zaqaru'', ("to be high"). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. The
Ziggurat of Ur The Ziggurat (or Great Ziggurat) of Ur ( Sumerian: "Etemenniguru", meaning "temple whose foundation creates aura") is a Neo-Sumerian ziggurat in what was the city of Ur near Nasiriyah, in present-day Dhi Qar Province, Iraq. The structure ...
, excavated by
Leonard Woolley Sir Charles Leonard Woolley (17 April 1880 – 20 February 1960) was a British archaeologist best known for his excavations at Ur in Mesopotamia. He is recognized as one of the first "modern" archaeologists who excavated in a methodical way, ...
, is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built under
Ur-Nammu Ur-Nammu (or Ur-Namma, Ur-Engur, Ur-Gur, Sumerian: , ruled c. 2112 BC – 2094 BC middle chronology, or possibly c. 2048–2030 BC short chronology) founded the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur, in southern Mesopotamia, following several centuries ...
(circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt under
Nabonidus Nabonidus (Babylonian cuneiform: ''Nabû-naʾid'', meaning "May Nabu be exalted" or "Nabu is praised") was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 ...
(555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.


Ancient Egyptian

File:Sakkara 02a.jpg, The
Pyramid of Djoser The pyramid of Djoser (or Djeser and Zoser), sometimes called the Step Pyramid of Djoser, is an archaeological site in the Saqqara necropolis, Egypt, northwest of the ruins of Memphis. The 6-tier, 4-sided structure is the earliest colossal stone ...
,
Saqqara Saqqara ( ar, سقارة, ), also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English , is an Egyptian village in Giza Governorate, that contains ancient burial grounds of Egyptian royalty, serving as the necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital, Memph ...
,
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medite ...
, 2667–2648 BC, by
Imhotep Imhotep (; egy, ỉỉ-m-ḥtp "(the one who) comes in peace"; fl. late 27th century BCE) was an Egyptian chancellor to the Pharaoh Djoser, possible architect of Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopo ...
Kheops-Pyramid.jpg,
Great Pyramid of Giza The Great Pyramid of Giza is the biggest Egyptian pyramid and the tomb of Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khufu. Built in the early 26th century BC during a period of around 27 years, the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient Wor ...
,
Giza Giza (; sometimes spelled ''Gizah'' arz, الجيزة ' ) is the second-largest city in Egypt after Cairo and fourth-largest city in Africa after Kinshasa, Lagos and Cairo. It is the capital of Giza Governorate with a total population of 9. ...
, Egypt, 2589-2566 BC, by
Hemiunu Hemiunu ( fl. 2570 BC) was an ancient Egyptian prince who is believed to have been the architect of the Great Pyramid of Giza. As vizier, succeeding his father, Nefermaat, and his uncle, Kanefer, Hemiunu was one of the most important members o ...
File:Pillars of Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak Luxor Egypt.JPG, Hypostyle Hall of the
Karnak Temple Complex The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak (, which was originally derived from ar, خورنق ''Khurnaq'' "fortified village"), comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, pylons, chapels, and other buildings near Luxor, Egypt. Construc ...
,
Luxor Luxor ( ar, الأقصر, al-ʾuqṣur, lit=the palaces) is a modern city in Upper (southern) Egypt which includes the site of the Ancient Egyptian city of ''Thebes''. Luxor has frequently been characterized as the "world's greatest open- ...
, Egypt, 1294–1213 BC File:Abu Simbel Main Temple (2346939149).jpg, Great Temple of
Abu Simbel Abu Simbel is a historic site comprising two massive rock-cut temples in the village of Abu Simbel ( ar, أبو سمبل), Aswan Governorate, Upper Egypt, near the border with Sudan. It is situated on the western bank of Lake Nasser, about s ...
(Egypt), 1264 BC File:Philae temple at night.jpg, Temple of Philae, 380 BC–117 AD File, Asuán, Egipto, 2022-04-01, DD 142.jpg, Trajan's Kiosk,
Philae ; ar, فيلة; cop, ⲡⲓⲗⲁⲕ , alternate_name = , image = File:File, Asuán, Egipto, 2022-04-01, DD 93.jpg , alt = , caption = The temple of Isis from Philae at its current location on Agilkia Island in Lake Nass ...
, Egypt, early 2nd century File:Examples of Historical Ornament, Egyptian by Boston Public Library.jpg, Illustrations from 1874 of
ornaments An ornament is something used for decoration. Ornament may also refer to: Decoration *Ornament (art), any purely decorative element in architecture and the decorative arts *Biological ornament, a characteristic of animals that appear to serve on ...
and
pattern A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated l ...
s used by ancient Egyptians
Modern imaginings of ancient Egypt are heavily influenced by the surviving traces of monumental architecture. Many formal styles and motifs were established at the dawn of the
pharaonic Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the a ...
state, around 3100 BC. The most iconic Ancient Egyptian buildings are the
pyramids A pyramid (from el, πυραμίς ') is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single step at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrila ...
, built during the
Old Old or OLD may refer to: Places *Old, Baranya, Hungary *Old, Northamptonshire, England * Old Street station, a railway and tube station in London (station code OLD) *OLD, IATA code for Old Town Municipal Airport and Seaplane Base, Old Town, M ...
and Middle Kingdoms (2600–1800 BC) as tombs for the
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the a ...
. However, there are also impressive temples, like the
Karnak Temple Complex The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak (, which was originally derived from ar, خورنق ''Khurnaq'' "fortified village"), comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, pylons, chapels, and other buildings near Luxor, Egypt. Construc ...
. The Ancient Egyptians believed in the
afterlife The afterlife (also referred to as life after death) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. The surviving e ...
. They also believed that in order for their soul (known as '' ka'') to live eternally in their afterlife, their bodies would have to remain intact for eternity. So, they had to create a way to protect the deceased from damage and grave robbers. This way, the
mastaba A mastaba (, or ), also mastabah, mastabat or pr- djt (meaning "house of stability", " house of eternity" or "eternal house" in Ancient Egyptian), is a type of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure with inwa ...
was born. These were adobe structures with flat roofs, which had underground rooms for the coffin, about 30 m down.
Imhotep Imhotep (; egy, ỉỉ-m-ḥtp "(the one who) comes in peace"; fl. late 27th century BCE) was an Egyptian chancellor to the Pharaoh Djoser, possible architect of Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopo ...
, an ancient Egyptian priest and architect, had to design a tomb for the Pharaoh
Djoser Djoser (also read as Djeser and Zoser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty during the Old Kingdom, and was the founder of that epoch. He is also known by his Hellenized names Tosorthros (from Manetho) and Sesorthos (from Euseb ...
. For this, he placed five mastabas, one above the next, this way creating the first Egyptian pyramid, the
Pyramid of Djoser The pyramid of Djoser (or Djeser and Zoser), sometimes called the Step Pyramid of Djoser, is an archaeological site in the Saqqara necropolis, Egypt, northwest of the ruins of Memphis. The 6-tier, 4-sided structure is the earliest colossal stone ...
at
Saqqara Saqqara ( ar, سقارة, ), also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English , is an Egyptian village in Giza Governorate, that contains ancient burial grounds of Egyptian royalty, serving as the necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital, Memph ...
(2667–2648 BC), which is a
step pyramid A step pyramid or stepped pyramid is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms, or steps, receding from the ground up, to achieve a completed shape similar to a geometric pyramid. Step pyramids are structures which characterized several ...
. The first smooth-sided one was built by Pharaoh
Sneferu Sneferu ( snfr-wj "He has perfected me", from ''Ḥr-nb-mꜣꜥt-snfr-wj'' "Horus, Lord of Maat, has perfected me", also read Snefru or Snofru), well known under his Hellenized name Soris ( grc-koi, Σῶρις by Manetho), was the founding pha ...
, who ruled between 2613 and 2589 BC. The most imposing one is the
Great Pyramid of Giza The Great Pyramid of Giza is the biggest Egyptian pyramid and the tomb of Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khufu. Built in the early 26th century BC during a period of around 27 years, the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient Wor ...
, made for Sneferu's son:
Khufu Khufu or Cheops was an ancient Egyptian monarch who was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, in the first half of the Old Kingdom period ( 26th century BC). Khufu succeeded his father Sneferu as king. He is generally accepted as havi ...
(2589–2566 BC), being the last surviving wonder of the ancient world and the largest pyramid in Egypt. The stone blocks used for pyramids were held together by mortar, and the entire structure was covered with highly polished white limestone, with their tops topped in gold. What we see today is actually the core structure of the pyramid. Inside, narrow passages led to the royal burial chambers. Despite being highly associated with the Ancient Egypt, pyramids have been built by other civilisations too, like the
Mayans The Maya peoples () are an ethnolinguistic group of indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. The ancient Maya civilization was formed by members of this group, and today's Maya are generally descended from people who lived within that historical ...
. Due to the lack of resources and a shift in power towards priesthood, ancient Egyptians stepped away from pyramids, and
temples A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
became the focal point of cult construction. Just like the pyramids, Ancient Egyptian temples were also spectacular and monumental. They evolved from small shrines made of perishable materials to large complexes, and by the
New Kingdom New is an adjective referring to something recently made, discovered, or created. New or NEW may refer to: Music * New, singer of K-pop group The Boyz Albums and EPs * ''New'' (album), by Paul McCartney, 2013 * ''New'' (EP), by Regurgitator ...
(circa 1550–1070 BC) they have become massive stone structures consisting of halls and courtyards. The temple represented a sort of 'cosmos' in stone, a copy of the original mound of creation on which the god could rejuvenate himself and the world. The entrance consisted of a twin gateway ( pylon), symbolizing the hills of the horizon. Inside there were columned halls symbolizing a primeval papyrus thicket. It was followed by a series of hallways of decreasing size, until the sanctuary was reached, where a god's cult statue was placed. Back in ancient times, temples were painted in bright colours, mainly red, blue, yellow, green, orange, and white. Because of the desert climate of Egypt, some parts of these painted surfaces were preserved well, especially in interiors. An architectural element specific to ancient Egyptian architecture is the cavetto
cornice In architecture, a cornice (from the Italian ''cornice'' meaning "ledge") is generally any horizontal decorative moulding that crowns a building or furniture element—for example, the cornice over a door or window, around the top edge of a ...
(a concave moulding), introduced by the end of the Old Kingdom. It was widely used to accentuate the top of almost every formal pharaonic building. Because of how often it was used, it will later decorate many
Egyptian Revival Egyptian Revival is an architectural style that uses the motifs and imagery of ancient Egypt. It is attributed generally to the public awareness of ancient Egyptian monuments generated by Napoleon's conquest of Egypt and Admiral Nelson's defeat ...
buildings and objects.


Harappan

File:Archaeological Site of Harappa by smn121 -20.JPG, The ruins of
Harappa Harappa (; Urdu/ pnb, ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a m ...
(
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...
, present–day
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-la ...
), circa 2550 BC File:Mohenjodaro - view of the stupa mound.JPG, The ruins of Mohenjo–daro (
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the Administrative units of Pakistan, four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of ...
), circa 1700 BC
The first Urban Civilization in the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Ind ...
is traceable originally to the
Indus Valley civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300  BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900 ...
mainly in
Mohenjodaro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Harappa Harappa (; Urdu/ pnb, ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a m ...
, now in modern-day Pakistan as well western states of the Republic of India. The earliest settlements are seen during the Neolithic period in Merhgarh,
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline ...
. The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning with baked brick buildings, elaborate drainage and water systems, and handicraft (
carnelian Carnelian (also spelled cornelian) is a brownish-red mineral commonly used as a semi-precious gemstone. Similar to carnelian is sard, which is generally harder and darker (the difference is not rigidly defined, and the two names are often used ...
products, seal carving). This civilisation transitioned from the Neolithic period into the
Chalcolithic The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and  ''líthos'', "Rock (geology), stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin ''wikt:aeneus, aeneus'' "of copper"), is an list of archaeologi ...
period and beyond with their expertise in metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). Their urban centres possibly grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation itself may have contained between one and five million individuals.


Greek

File:Ναός του Ηφαίστου.jpg,
Temple of Hephaestus The Temple of Hephaestus or ''Hephaisteion'' (also "Hephesteum" or "Hephaesteum"; grc, Ἡφαιστεῖον, ell, Ναός Ηφαίστου, and formerly called in error the Theseion or "Theseum"; grc, Θησεῖον, ell, Θησείο), ...
on the Agoraios Kolonos Hill,
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
,
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
, 449 BC, unknown architect File:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg,
Erechtheion The Erechtheion (latinized as Erechtheum /ɪˈrɛkθiəm, ˌɛrɪkˈθiːəm/; Ancient Greek: Ἐρέχθειον, Greek: Ερέχθειο) or Temple of Athena Polias is an ancient Greek Ionic temple-telesterion on the north side of the Acropolis ...
, Athens, with its Ionic columns and
caryatid A caryatid ( or or ; grc, Καρυᾶτις, pl. ) is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term ''karyatides'' literally means "m ...
porch A porch (from Old French ''porche'', from Latin ''porticus'' "colonnade", from ''porta'' "passage") is a room or gallery located in front of an entrance of a building. A porch is placed in front of the facade of a building it commands, and form ...
, 421–405 BC, unknown architect File:Parthenon (30276156187).jpg,
Parthenon The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
,
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
, Greece, 447–432 BC, by Ictinus,
Callicrates Callicrates or Kallikrates (; el, Καλλικράτης ) was an ancient Greek architect active in the middle of the fifth century BC. He and Ictinus were architects of the Parthenon (Plutarch, ''Pericles'', 13). An inscription identifies him ...
and
Phidias Phidias or Pheidias (; grc, Φειδίας, ''Pheidias'';  480 – 430 BC) was a Greek sculptor, painter, and architect. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the st ...
File:Delphi tholos cazzul.JPG, Tholos of the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia,
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The ora ...
, Greece, 380–360 BC, by Theodoros of Phocaea File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg, Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus,
Epidaurus Epidaurus ( gr, Ἐπίδαυρος) was a small city (''polis'') in ancient Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula at the Saronic Gulf. Two modern towns bear the name Epidavros: '' Palaia Epidavros'' and '' Nea Epidavros''. Since 2010 they belong to ...
, Greece, 3rd century BC, unknown architect Torre dels Vents d'Atenes.JPG,
Tower of the Winds The Tower of the Winds or the Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes is an octagonal Pentelic marble clocktower in the Roman Agora in Athens that functioned as a '' horologion'' or "timepiece". It is considered the world's first meteorological s ...
, Athens, 1st century BC, unknown architect File:Schema Saeulenordnungen.jpg, Illustration of Doric (left three), Ionic (middle three) and Corinthian (right two) columns and
entablature An entablature (; nativization of Italian , from "in" and "table") is the superstructure of moldings and bands which lies horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, a ...
s File:Examples of Historical Ornament, Greek by Boston Public Library.jpg, Illustrations from 1874 of
ornaments An ornament is something used for decoration. Ornament may also refer to: Decoration *Ornament (art), any purely decorative element in architecture and the decorative arts *Biological ornament, a characteristic of animals that appear to serve on ...
and
pattern A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated l ...
s used by ancient Greeks and Romans Antike Polychromie 1.jpg, Illustration from 1883 that shows the colour scheme of the Doric order
Without a doubt, ancient Greek architecture, together with
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, is one of the most influential styles of all time. Since the advent of the
Classical Age Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
in
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
, in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself. From circa circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, ancient Greek culture flourished on the
Greek mainland Greece is a country of the Balkans, in Southeastern Europe, bordered to the north by Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria; to the east by Turkey, and is surrounded to the east by the Aegean Sea, to the south by the Cretan and the Libyan Seas, ...
, on the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese (), Peloponnesus (; el, Πελοπόννησος, Pelopónnēsos,(), or Morea is a peninsula and geographic region in southern Greece. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridge whi ...
, and on the Aegean islands. Five of the
Wonders of the World Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, in order to catalogue the world's most spectacular natural features and human-built structures. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the o ...
were Greek: the
Temple of Artemis The Temple of Artemis or Artemision ( gr, Ἀρτεμίσιον; tr, Artemis Tapınağı), also known as the Temple of Diana, was a Greek temple dedicated to an ancient, local form of the goddess Artemis (identified with Diana, a Roman go ...
at
Ephesus Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in ...
, the
Statue of Zeus at Olympia The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was a giant seated figure, about tall, made by the Greek sculptor Phidias around 435 BC at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece, and erected in the Temple of Zeus there. Zeus is the sky and thunder god in ancient ...
, the
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or Tomb of Mausolus ( grc, Μαυσωλεῖον τῆς Ἁλικαρνασσοῦ; tr, Halikarnas Mozolesi) was a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC in Halicarnassus (present Bodrum, Turkey) for Mausolus, an ...
, the
Colossus of Rhodes The Colossus of Rhodes ( grc, ὁ Κολοσσὸς Ῥόδιος, ho Kolossòs Rhódios gr, Κολοσσός της Ρόδου, Kolossós tes Rhódou) was a statue of the Greek sun-god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes (city), Rhodes, on ...
, and the
Lighthouse of Alexandria The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of Alexandria (; Ancient Greek: ὁ Φάρος τῆς Ἀλεξανδρείας, contemporary Koine ), was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, during the rei ...
. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, and the
Parthenon The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for Neoclassical architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the
Parthenon The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
and the
Erechtheion The Erechtheion (latinized as Erechtheum /ɪˈrɛkθiəm, ˌɛrɪkˈθiːəm/; Ancient Greek: Ἐρέχθειον, Greek: Ερέχθειο) or Temple of Athena Polias is an ancient Greek Ionic temple-telesterion on the north side of the Acropolis ...
, both on the
Acropolis of Athens The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historical significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. Th ...
. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios. Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with continuous stairs of a few steps at each edges (known as ''
crepidoma Crepidoma is an architectural term for part of the structure of ancient Greek buildings. The crepidoma is the multilevel platform on which the superstructure of the building is erected. The crepidoma usually has three levels. Each level typica ...
''), a
cella A cella (from Latin for small chamber) or naos (from the Greek ναός, "temple") is the inner chamber of an ancient Greek or Roman temple in classical antiquity. Its enclosure within walls has given rise to extended meanings, of a hermit's or ...
(or ''naos'') with a cult statue in it, columns, an
entablature An entablature (; nativization of Italian , from "in" and "table") is the superstructure of moldings and bands which lies horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, a ...
, and two
pediment Pediments are gables, usually of a triangular shape. Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the lintel, or entablature, if supported by columns. Pediments can contain an overdoor and are usually topped by hood moulds. A pediment ...
s, one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as the orders: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by the capitals). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has four scrolls (called ''
volute A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. Four are normally to be found on an I ...
s'') at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated with acanthus leafs and four scrolls. Besides columns, the frieze was different based on order. While the Doric one has
metope In classical architecture, a metope (μετόπη) is a rectangular architectural element that fills the space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze, which is a decorative band of alternating triglyphs and metopes above the architrave of a ...
s and
triglyph Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. The rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze ar ...
s with
gutta A gutta ( Latin pl. guttae, "drops") is a small water-repelling, cone-shaped projection used near the top of the architrave of the Doric order in classical architecture. At the top of the architrave blocks, a row of six ''guttae'' below the nar ...
e, Ionic and Corinthian friezes consist of one big continuous band with reliefs. Besides the columns, the temples were highly decorated with sculptures, in the pediments, on the
frieze In architecture, the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Paterae are also usually used to decorate friezes. Even when neither columns nor ...
s,
metope In classical architecture, a metope (μετόπη) is a rectangular architectural element that fills the space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze, which is a decorative band of alternating triglyphs and metopes above the architrave of a ...
s and
triglyph Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. The rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze ar ...
s.
Ornaments An ornament is something used for decoration. Ornament may also refer to: Decoration *Ornament (art), any purely decorative element in architecture and the decorative arts *Biological ornament, a characteristic of animals that appear to serve on ...
used by Ancient Greek architects and artists include
palmette The palmette is a motif in decorative art which, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree. It has a far-reaching history, originating in ancient Egypt with a subsequent development through the art o ...
s, vegetal or
wave In physics, mathematics, and related fields, a wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more quantities. Waves can be periodic, in which case those quantities oscillate repeatedly about an equilibrium (re ...
-like scrolls, lion mascarons (mostly on lateral
cornice In architecture, a cornice (from the Italian ''cornice'' meaning "ledge") is generally any horizontal decorative moulding that crowns a building or furniture element—for example, the cornice over a door or window, around the top edge of a ...
s), dentils, acanthus leafs, bucrania,
festoon A festoon (from French ''feston'', Italian ''festone'', from a Late Latin ''festo'', originally a festal garland, Latin ''festum'', feast) is a wreath or garland hanging from two points, and in architecture typically a carved ornament depic ...
s,
egg-and-dart Egg-and-dart, also known as egg-and-tongue, egg-and-anchor, or egg-and-star, is an ornamental device adorning the fundamental quarter-round, convex ovolo profile of moulding, consisting of alternating details on the face of the ovolo—typically ...
, rais-de-cœur, beads,
meanders A meander is one of a series of regular sinuous curves in the channel of a river or other watercourse. It is produced as a watercourse erodes the sediments of an outer, concave bank ( cut bank) and deposits sediments on an inner, convex b ...
, and
acroteria An acroterion, acroterium, or akroteria is an architectural ornament placed on a flat pedestal called the ''acroter'' or plinth, and mounted at the apex or corner of the pediment of a building in the classical style. An acroterion placed at th ...
at the corners of the pediments. Pretty often, ancient Greek ornaments are used continuously, as bands. They will later be used in Etruscan,
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
and in the post-medieval styles that tried to revive Greco-Roman art and architecture, like
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
,
Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
, Neoclassical etc. Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient and medieval buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was
polychrome Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors. Ancient Egypt Colossal statu ...
d in much of the Ancient and Medieval world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the
Parthenon The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
( 447–432 BC) in
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
, had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on capitals and columns. This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because
Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on h ...
and other Renaissance artists, including
Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was ins ...
, promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.


Roman

File:Colosseo 2020.jpg,
Colosseum The Colosseum ( ; it, Colosseo ) is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world t ...
(Rome), 70–80 BC File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg,
Pont du Gard The Pont du Gard is an ancient Roman aqueduct bridge built in the first century AD to carry water over to the Roman colony of ''Nemausus'' (Nîmes). It crosses the river Gardon near the town of Vers-Pont-du-Gard in southern France. The Pont ...
( Vers-Pont-du-Gard,
Gard Gard () is a department in Southern France, located in the region of Occitanie. It had a population of 748,437 as of 2019;Roman aqueduct The Ancient Rome, Romans constructed Aqueduct (water supply), aqueducts throughout their Roman Republic, Republic and later Roman Empire, Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied Thermae, public ...
, 40–60 AD File:Maison Carree in Nimes (16).jpg, Maison Carrée (
Nîmes Nîmes ( , ; oc, Nimes ; Latin: ''Nemausus'') is the prefecture of the Gard department in the Occitanie region of Southern France. Located between the Mediterranean Sea and Cévennes, the commune of Nîmes has an estimated population of 14 ...
, France), 2nd century Einblick Panorama Pantheon Rom.jpg, Pantheon (Rome), 114-123 File:Ephesus Celsus Library Façade.jpg,
Library of Celsus The Library of Celsus ( el, Βιβλιοθήκη του Κέλσου) is an ancient Roman building in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey. The building was commissioned in the 110s A.D. by a consul, Gaius Julius Aquila, as a funerary m ...
(
Ephesus Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in ...
, Turkey), 112–120 File:500px photo (217110515).jpeg,
Arch of Constantine The Arch of Constantine ( it, Arco di Costantino) is a triumphal arch in Rome dedicated to the emperor Constantine the Great. The arch was commissioned by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvi ...
(Rome), 316
The architecture of
ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 ...
has been one of the most influential in the world. Its legacy is evident throughout the medieval and early modern periods, and Roman buildings continue to be reused in the modern era in both New Classical and
Postmodern Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourseNuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194. characterized by skepticism toward the " grand narratives" of moderni ...
architecture. It was particularly influenced by
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and Etruscan styles. A range of temple types was developed during the republican years (509–27 BC), modified from Greek and Etruscan prototypes. Wherever the Roman army conquered, they established towns and cities, spreading their empire and advancing their architectural and engineering achievements. While the most important works are to be found in Italy, Roman builders also found creative outlets in the western and eastern provinces, of which the best examples preserved are in modern-day
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
,
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
,
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
and
Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
. Extravagant projects appeared, like the Arch of Septimius Severus in
Leptis Magna Leptis or Lepcis Magna, also known by other names in antiquity, was a prominent city of the Carthaginian Empire and Roman Libya at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda in the Mediterranean. Originally a 7th-centuryBC Phoenician foundation, it was grea ...
(present-day
Libya Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Suda ...
, built in 216 AD), with broken pediments on all sides, or the Arch of Caracalla in Thebeste (present-day
Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , relig ...
, built in 214 AD), with paired columns on all sides, projecting
entablature An entablature (; nativization of Italian , from "in" and "table") is the superstructure of moldings and bands which lies horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, a ...
s and
medallions Medallion or Medallions may refer to: * Medal (shortening of "medallion"), a carved or engraved circular piece of metal issued as a souvenir, award, work of art or fashion accessory * Medallion (architecture), a large round or oval ornament on a b ...
with divine busts. Due to the fact that the empire was formed from multiple nations and cultures, some buildings were the product of combining the Roman style with the local tradition. An example is the Palmyra Arch (present-day
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, built in 212–220)
some of its arches being embellished with a repeated band design
consisting of four ovals within a circle around a rosette, which are of Eastern origin. Surpassing most civilisations of their time, the Romans developed new engineering skills, architectural techniques and materials. Among the many Roman architectural achievements were
domes A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a ...
(which were created for temples), baths, villas, palaces and tombs. The most well known example is the one of the Pantheon in Rome, being the largest surviving Roman dome and having a large oculus at its centre. Another important innovation is the rounded stone arch, used in arcades, aqueducts and other structures. Besides the Greek orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), the Romans invented two more. The
Tuscan order The Tuscan order (Latin ''Ordo Tuscanicus'' or ''Ordo Tuscanus'', with the meaning of Etruscan order) is one of the two classical orders developed by the Romans, the other being the composite order. It is influenced by the Doric order, but with u ...
was influenced by the Doric, but with un-fluted columns and a simpler
entablature An entablature (; nativization of Italian , from "in" and "table") is the superstructure of moldings and bands which lies horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, a ...
with no
triglyph Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. The rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze ar ...
s or
guttae A gutta (Latin pl. guttae, "drops") is a small water-repelling, cone-shaped projection used near the top of the architrave of the Doric order in classical architecture. At the top of the architrave blocks, a row of six ''guttae'' below the narro ...
, while the Composite was a mixed order, combining the
volute A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. Four are normally to be found on an I ...
s of the
Ionic order The Ionic order is one of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, the other two being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan (a plainer Doric), and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composi ...
capital with the acanthus leaves of the
Corinthian order The Corinthian order ( Greek: Κορινθιακός ρυθμός, Latin: ''Ordo Corinthius'') is the last developed of the three principal classical orders of Ancient Greek architecture and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric orde ...
. Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and engineer
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled ''De architectura''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attribute ...
published a major treatise, ''
De architectura (''On architecture'', published as ''Ten Books on Architecture'') is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect and military engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide ...
'', which influenced architects around the world for centuries. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture.Kruft, Hanno-Walter. ''A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present'' (New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 1994). Just like the Greeks, the Romans built amphiteatres too. The largest amphitheatre ever built, the
Colosseum The Colosseum ( ; it, Colosseo ) is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world t ...
in Rome, could hold around 50,000 spectators. Another iconic Roman structure that demonstrates their precision and technological advancement is the
Pont du Gard The Pont du Gard is an ancient Roman aqueduct bridge built in the first century AD to carry water over to the Roman colony of ''Nemausus'' (Nîmes). It crosses the river Gardon near the town of Vers-Pont-du-Gard in southern France. The Pont ...
in southern France, the highest surviving Roman aqueduct.


Americas (Pre-Columbian)

File:Teotihuacán, México, 2013-10-13, DD 47.JPG, Avenue of the Dead (
Teotihuacan Teotihuacan ( Spanish: ''Teotihuacán'') (; ) is an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, which is located in the State of Mexico, northeast of modern-day Mexico City. Teotihuacan is known today as t ...
,
Mexico Mexico ( Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Gua ...
), 1–600 AD File:The Palace from the top of Temple of the Cross - Palenque Maya Site, Feb 2020.jpg, The Palace of
Palenque Palenque (; Yucatec Maya: ), also anciently known in the Itza Language as Lakamhaʼ ("Big Water or Big Waters"), was a Maya city state in southern Mexico that perished in the 8th century. The Palenque ruins date from ca. 226 BC to ca. 799 AD. A ...
(
Chiapas Chiapas (; Tzotzil and Tzeltal: ''Chyapas'' ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas), is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 124 municipalities ...
, Mexico), 7th–8th centuries File:Tikal ruinas=Great Plaza (6995996121).jpg, Temple of the Great Jaguar (
Tikal Tikal () (''Tik’al'' in modern Mayan orthography) is the ruin of an ancient city, which was likely to have been called Yax Mutal, found in a rainforest in Guatemala. It is one of the largest archeological sites and urban centers of the pre-Co ...
,
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
), 732 File:Architectural Detail - Nuns' Quadrangle - Uxmal Archaeological Site - Merida - Mexico - 02.jpg, Nunnery Quadrangle (
Uxmal Uxmal ( Yucatec Maya: ''Óoxmáal'' ) is an ancient Maya city of the classical period located in present-day Mexico. It is considered one of the most important archaeological sites of Maya culture, along with Palenque, Chichen Itza and Calakmul ...
,
Yucatán Yucatán (, also , , ; yua, Yúukatan ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Yucatán,; yua, link=no, Xóot' Noj Lu'umil Yúukatan. is one of the 31 states which comprise the federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 106 separate mun ...
, Mexico), 800–1000 File:Temple of the Warriors (4387345603).jpg, Temple of the Warriors ( Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico), 900–1200
From over 3,000 years before the Europeans 'discovered' America, complex societies had already been established across North, Central and South America. The most complex ones were in
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica ...
, notably the
Mayans The Maya peoples () are an ethnolinguistic group of indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. The ancient Maya civilization was formed by members of this group, and today's Maya are generally descended from people who lived within that historical ...
, the
Olmecs The Olmecs () were the earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization. Following a progressive development in Soconusco, they occupied the tropical lowlands of the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. It has been speculated that t ...
and the
Aztecs The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl l ...
, but also
Incas The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, ( Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts",  "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admi ...
in
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
. Although knowledge of astronomy and engineering was limited, structures and buildings were often aligned with astronomical features or with the cardinal directions. Much of the architecture developed through cultural exchange – for example the Aztecs learnt much from earlier Mayan architecture. Many cultures built entire cities, with monolithic temples and pyramids decoratively carved with animals, gods and kings. Most of these cities had a central plaza with governmental buildings and temples, plus public ball courts, or ''tlachtli'', on raised platforms. Just like in ancient Egypt, here were built pyramids too, being generally stepped. They were probably not used as burial chambers, but had important religious sites at the top. They had few rooms, as interiors mattered less that the ritual presence of these imposing structures and the public ceremonies they hosted; so, platforms, altars, processional stairs, statuary, and carving were all important.


South Asia

After the fall of the
Indus Valley The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans- Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kash ...
, South Asian architecture entered the Dharmic period which saw the development of Ancient Indian architectural styles which further developed into various unique forms in the Middle Ages, along with the combination of Islamic styles, and later, other global traditions.


Ancient Buddhist

Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg, The Great
Stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as '' śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circuma ...
of
Sanchi Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen town, district headquarter and north-east of Bh ...
(
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital city, capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, Sagar, and Rewa, India, Rewa being the othe ...
, India), 3rd century-100 BC Paharpur_Buddhist_Bihar.jpg,
Somapura Mahavihara Somapura Mahavihara ( bn, সোমপুর মহাবিহার, Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Badalgachhi, Naogaon, Bangladesh is among the best known Buddhist viharas or monasteries in the Indian Subcontinent and is one of the mo ...
(
Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
), circa 8th century AD Ajanta, grotta 19, chaitya del V secolo dc. , esterno 04,0.jpg, Cave 19 of the Ajanta Caves (
Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country sub ...
), a
chaitya A chaitya, chaitya hall, chaitya-griha, (Sanskrit:''Caitya''; Pāli: '' Cetiya'') refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian religions. The term is most common in Buddhism, where it refers to a space with a stupa and a rounde ...
hall, and also an example of
Indian rock-cut architecture Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid na ...
, 5th-century Ruwanwelisaya.jpg,
Ruwanwelisaya The Ruwanweli Maha Seya, also known as the Mahathupa (), is a stupa (a hemispherical structure containing relics) in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Two quarts or one Dona of the Buddha's relics are enshrined in the stupa, making it the largest collecti ...
( Anuradhapura,
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
), circa 140 BC (renovated early 20th century)
Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 2nd century BC, and spread first to China and then further across Asia. Three types of structures are associated with the
religious architecture Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stu ...
of
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India: * Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by Ga ...
: monasteries ( viharas), places to venerate relics (
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as '' śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circuma ...
s), and shrines or prayer halls (
chaitya A chaitya, chaitya hall, chaitya-griha, (Sanskrit:''Caitya''; Pāli: '' Cetiya'') refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian religions. The term is most common in Buddhism, where it refers to a space with a stupa and a rounde ...
s, also called ''chaitya grihas''), which later came to be called temples in some places. The most iconic Buddhist type of building is the stupa, which consists of a
dome A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a ...
d structure containing relics, used as a place of meditation to commemorate Buddha. The dome symbolised the infinite space of the sky.
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture after its introduction, and ancient Sri Lankan architecture was mainly religious, with over 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries.Pieris K (2006), Architecture and landscape in ancient and medieval Lanka Monasteries were designed using the Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra, which outlines the layout of the structure. After the fall of the Gupta empire, Buddhism mainly survived in
Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predo ...
under the
Palas A ''palas'' () is a German term for the imposing or prestigious building of a medieval '' Pfalz'' or castle that contained the great hall. Such buildings appeared during the Romanesque period (11th to 13th century) and, according to Thompson, ...
, and has had a significant impact on pre-Islamic Bengali architecture of that period.


Ancient Hindu

Deogarh01.jpg, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (
Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 195 ...
), circa 6th century AD Maa_Mundeshwari_Devi.jpg, Mundeshwari Temple ( Kaimur district,
Bihar Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of Wes ...
), circa 7th century AD 1_Dancing_Shiva,_Cave_21_at_Ellora.jpg,
Ellora Caves Ellora is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India. It is one of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000 CE., Quote: "These 34 ...
( Aurangabad district, Maharashtra), circa 6th century AD
Across the Indian subcontinent, Hindu architecture evolved from simple rock-cut cave shrines to monumental temples. From the 4th to 5th centuries AD, Hindu temples were adapted to the worship of different deities and regional beliefs, and by the 6th or 7th centuries larger examples had evolved into towering brick or stone-built structures that symbolise the sacred five-peaked
Mount Meru Mount Meru ( Sanskrit/Pali: मेरु), also known as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all the physical, metaphysical and spir ...
. Influenced by early
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as '' śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circuma ...
s, the architecture was not designed for collective worship, but had areas for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals. Many Indian architectural styles for structures such as temples, statues, homes, markets, gardens and planning are as described in
Hindu texts Hindu texts are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few of these texts are shared across these traditions and they are broadly considered Hindu scriptures. These ...
. The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These include the
Vastu shastra ''Vastu shastra'' ( hi, वास्तु शास्त्र, ' – literally "science of architecture") is a traditional Indian system of architecture based on ancient texts that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, groun ...
s,
Shilpa Shastras ''Shilpa Shastras'' ( sa, शिल्प शास्त्र ') literally means the Science of Shilpa (arts and crafts).Stella Kramrisch (1958)Traditions of the Indian Craftsman The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, Traditional ...
, the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the
Manasara The ''Mānasāra'', also known as ''Manasa'' or ''Manasara Shilpa Shastra'', is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on Indian architecture and design. Organized into 70 ''adhyayas'' (chapters) and 10,000 ''shlokas'' (verses), it is one of many Hindu tex ...
among others. Since this architectural style emerged in the classical period, it has had a considerable influence on various medieval architectural styles like that of the Gurjaras,
Dravidians The Dravidian peoples, or Dravidians, are an ethnolinguistic and cultural group living in South Asia who predominantly speak any of the Dravidian languages. There are around 250 million native speakers of Dravidian languages. Dravidian sp ...
,
Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
, Odias, Bengalis, and the Assamese.


Maru Gurjara

File:20191218 Pałac Wiatrów w Jaipurze 1129 9124.jpg,
Hawa Mahal The Hawa Mahal is a palace in the city of Jaipur, India. Built from red and pink sandstone, it is on the edge of the City Palace, Jaipur, and extends to the ''Zenana'', or women's chambers. The structure was built in 1799 by the Maharaja Saw ...
(
Jaipur Jaipur (; Hindi: ''Jayapura''), formerly Jeypore, is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Rajasthan. , the city had a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Jaipur is also known ...
,
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern ...
), 1799 File:Navlakha arial view 02 (cropped).jpg,
Navlakha Temple, Ghumli Navlakha Temple at Ghumli, Gujarat, India, is a 12th Century temple built by Jethwa dynasty rulers. History Navlakha Temple at Ghumli was built by Jethwa rulers in 11th century dedicated to Sun god, Surya and is oldest sun temple of Gujarat. ...
,
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth- ...
, 12th century File:Delwada.jpg, Interior of the
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
Vimal Vasahi Temple (
Mount Abu Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above ...
), 1031
This style of North Indian architecture has been observed in
Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
as well as
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
places of worship and congregation. It emerged in the 11th to 13th centuries under the
Chaulukya The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
(Solanki) period. It eventually became more popular among the Jain communities who spread it in the greater region and across the world. These structures have the unique features like a large number of projections on external walls with sharply carved statues, and several urushringa spirelets on the main
shikhara ''Shikhara'' ( IAST: '), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A ''shikhara'' over the ''garbhagriha'' cha ...
.


Himalayan

File:Nyatapola Temple.JPG,
Nyatapola Temple Nyātāpola ( Nepal Bhasa: , "''ṅātāpola''", ) is a five tiered temple located in the central part of Bhaktapur, Nepal. It is the tallest monument within the city and is also the tallest temple of Nepal. This temple was commissioned by King ...
(
Bhaktapur , motto = ne, पुर्खले सिर्जेको सम्पत्ती, हाम्रो कला र संस्कृति , lit=Creation of our ancestors, our heritage and culture , image_map ...
,
Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
), 1702 File:Taktshang edit.jpg, Paro Taktsang (
Paro, Bhutan Paro ( dz, སྤ་རོ་) is a town and seat of Paro District, in the Paro Valley of Bhutan. It is a historic town with many sacred sites and historical buildings scattered throughout the area. It is also home to Paro International Airport, ...
), 1692 File:White Palace of the Potala.jpg,
Potala Palace The Potala Palace is a ''dzong'' fortress in Lhasa, Tibet. It was the winter palace of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 to 1959, has been a museum since then, and a World Heritage Site since 1994. The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythica ...
(
Lhasa Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; bo, text=ལྷ་ས, translation=Place of Gods) is the urban center of the prefecture-level Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet Autonomous Region in Southwest China. The inner urban area of Lhasa ...
,
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Tama ...
), 1649 File:Jami Masjid courtyard (6133553291).jpg,
Jamia Masjid, Srinagar Jamia Masjid is a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Situated at Nowhatta in the middle of the Old City, the Mosque was commissioned by Sultan Sikandar in 1394 CE and completed in 1402 CE, at the behest of Mir Mohammad Hamadani, ...
(
Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
), 1394
The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including the Paharis, Sino-Tibetans,
Kashmiris Kashmiris are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group speaking the Kashmiri language, living mostly, but not exclusively, in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir, India.(a) (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern ...
, and many more groups. Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, the architecture has also had multiple influences. Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas, artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings. These styles exist in different forms from
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Tama ...
and
Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
to
Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to ...
and
Nagaland Nagaland () is a landlocked States and union territories of India, state in the northeast India, northeastern region of India. It is bordered by the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh to the north, Assam to the west, Manipur to the south and the ...
. A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples, mosques, and civic buildings.


Dravidian

File:SaluvanakuppamVel.jpg, Stone ''
vel Vel ( ta, வேல், lit=Vēl) is a divine javelin or spear associated with Murugan, the Hindu god of war. Significance According to Shaiva tradition, the goddess Parvati presented the Vel to her son Murugan, as an embodiment of her shakti ...
'' on a brick platform at the entrance to the
Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam The Murugan Temple at Saluvankuppam, Tamil Nadu, India, is a shrine dedicated to Tamil Hindu deity Murugan. Archaeologists believe that the shrine, unearthed in 2005, consists of two layers: a brick temple constructed during the Sangam peri ...
, 300 BC File:Padmanabhaswamy_Temple_Gopuram.jpg,
Padmanabhaswamy Temple The Shree Padmanabhaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple located in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of the state of Kerala, India. The name of the city of 'Thiruvananthapuram' in Tamil and Malayalam translates to "The City of Lord Ananta" (The ...
(
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram (; ), also known by its former name Trivandrum (), is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the most populous city in Kerala with a population of 957,730 as of 2011. The encompassing urban agglomeration populat ...
,
Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South C ...
); local Dravidian worship site possibly as early as the 4th century AD, Vaishnavite worship site by the 8th century AD, with its gopuram built by the 16th century AD File:MEENAKSHI TEMPLE- WEST TOWER.jpg,
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundaraswarar Temple is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi, a form of Parvati, and her consort, ...
(
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu is the home of the Tamil people, whose Tamil language� ...
), circa 12th century File:Yali_pillars_in_a_small_open_mantapa_in_the_Vitthala_temple_complex_in_Hampi_2.JPG, Vitthala Temple (
Hampi Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Hampi town, Vijayanagara district, east-central Karnataka, India. Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14 ...
,
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karn ...
), circa 16th century
This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka. These include
Hindu temple A Hindu temple, or ''mandir'' or ''koil'' in Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through worship, sacrifice, and devotion.; Quote: "The Hind ...
s with a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over the
garbhagriha A ''garbhagriha'' or ''sannidhanam'' is the '' sanctum sanctorum'', the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the '' murti'' (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the ...
or sanctuary called a
vimana Vimāna are mythological flying palaces or chariots described in Hindu texts and Sanskrit epics. The "Pushpaka Vimana" of Ravana (who took it from Kubera; Rama returned it to Kubera) is the most quoted example of a vimana. Vimanas are also menti ...
, where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called
shikhara ''Shikhara'' ( IAST: '), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A ''shikhara'' over the ''garbhagriha'' cha ...
s. These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region. In the Tamil country, this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it. This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs. Further north, the Karnata Dravida style varies based on the diversity of influences, often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties.


Kalinga

Temple-Jagannath.jpg, The
Jagannath Temple The Jagannath Temple is an important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu - one of the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism. Puri is in the state of Odisha, on the eastern coast of India. The present temple was rebuilt ...
(
Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as ' ...
,
Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of S ...
, India), one of the four holiest places (Dhamas) of Hinduism, 12th century Konarka Temple.jpg, The
Konark Sun Temple Konark Sun Temple is a (year 1250) Sun temple at Konark about northeast from Puri city on the coastline in Puri district, Odisha, India.Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of S ...
,
West Bengal West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fou ...
and northern
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
. Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of the Somavamsi dynasty of Odisha. Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures, Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes. Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers called ''deul'' or ''deula'' and prayer halls called ''jagmohan''.


East and Southeast Asia


Sinosphere

File:Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.jpg, The
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Giant Wild Goose Pagoda or Big Wild Goose Pagoda (, literally "big swan goose pagoda"), is a monumental Buddhist pagoda located in southern Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. It was built in 648/649(?) during the Tang dynasty and originally had five stor ...
in southern
Xi'an Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongq ...
(
Shaanxi Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), Ningx ...
province, China), 652 (during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingd ...
) Wutai Nanchan Si 2013.08.28 13-44-44.jpg, The main hall of the Nanchan Monastery ( Wutai,
Xinzhou Xinzhou, ancient name Xiurong (秀荣), is a prefecture-level city occupying the north-central section of Shanxi Province in the People's Republic of China, bordering Hebei to the east, Shaanxi to the west, and Inner Mongolia to the north ...
,
Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level ...
, China), renovated in 782 File:独乐寺观音阁正面1.JPG, The Guanyian Pavilion of the Dule Monastery ( Jixian, China), 984 File:11 Temple of Heaven.jpg, alt=Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the Temple of Heaven (Beijing), 1703-1790, Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the
Temple of Heaven The Temple of Heaven () is a complex of imperial religious buildings situated in the southeastern part of central Beijing. The complex was visited by the Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies of prayer to Heaven for a ...
(Beijing), 1703–1790 File:Temple of Literature Hanoi.jpg,
Temple of Literature, Hanoi Văn Miếu (Vietnamese: ''Văn Miếu'', Hán tự: 文廟) is a temple dedicated to Confucius in Hanoi, northern Vietnam. The temple also hosts the Imperial Academy (, ), Vietnam's first national university. The temple was built in 1070 ...
(
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...
), 1070 File:광화문 Gwanghwamun 光化門 - panoramio.jpg,
Gyeongbokgung Palace Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the '' Five Grand Palaces'' built by the Jos ...
(
Seoul Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
,
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eas ...
), 1395 File:NintokuTomb Aerial photograph 2007.jpg, The Mausoleum of Emperor Nintoku (
Sakai is a city located in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. It has been one of the largest and most important seaports of Japan since the medieval era. Sakai is known for its keyhole-shaped burial mounds, or kofun, which date from the fifth century and inclu ...
,
Osaka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Osaka Prefecture has a population of 8,778,035 () and has a geographic area of . Osaka Prefecture borders Hyōgo Prefecture to the northwest, Kyoto Prefecture to the north, Nar ...
, Japan), 4th century File:Horyu-ji, November 2016.jpg, Pagoda at
Hōryū-ji is a Buddhist temple that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples, in Ikaruga, Nara Prefecture, Japan. Its full name is , or Learning Temple of the Flourishing Law, the complex serving as both a seminary and monastery. The temple wa ...
, a
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
temple in
Ikaruga is a shoot 'em up developed by Treasure (company), Treasure. It is the Spiritual successor, spiritual sequel to ''Radiant Silvergun'' (1998) and was originally released in Japanese arcades in December 2001. The story follows a rebel pilot name ...
(
Nara Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Nara Prefecture has a population of 1,321,805 and has a geographic area of . Nara Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the north, Osaka Prefecture to the northwest, Wakay ...
), 607 File:Japan 060416 Ninnaji 02.jpg, The garden of the
Ninna-ji is the head temple of the Omuro school of the Shingon Sect of Buddhism. Located in western Kyoto, Japan, it was first founded in AD 888 by Emperor Uda, and was later reconstructed in the 17th century. It is part of the Historic Monuments of A ...
temple in
Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the cit ...
( Kyoto Prefecture), an example of a
Japanese garden are traditional gardens whose designs are accompanied by Japanese aesthetics and philosophical ideas, avoid artificial ornamentation, and highlight the natural landscape. Plants and worn, aged materials are generally used by Japanese garden desig ...
, 888 File:Kinkaku-ji the Golden Temple in Kyoto overlooking the lake - high rez.JPG, Kinkaku-ji (Kitayama,
Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the cit ...
), a Zen Buddhist temples in Japan, Buddhist temple in
Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the cit ...
, 1398
What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in the
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several par ...
period (10,000–2000 BC), covering the cultural sites of Yangshao, Longshan culture, Longshan, and Liangzhu culture, Liangzhu in central China. Sections of present-day north-east China also contain sites of the Neolithic Hongshan culture, Hongshan culture that manifested aspects of proto-Chinese culture. Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic, animism, animistic and hero worship. In general, open-air platforms (''tan'', or altar) were used for worshipping naturalistic deities, such as the gods of wind and earth, whereas formal buildings (''miao'', or temple) were for heroes and deceased ancestors. Most early buildings in China were Lumber, timber structures. Columns with sets of Bracket (architecture), brackets on the face of the buildings, mostly in even numbers, made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening. Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth. The transmission of
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices, and so to new building types. Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China, based on Indian rock-cut architecture, Indian rock-cut ones. Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form of
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as '' śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circuma ...
(''ta'') or pagoda. In India, stupas were erected to commemorate well-known people or teachers: consequently, the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher, the Buddha. In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life. Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China. More than 4,600 official and 40,000 unofficial monasteries were built. They varies in size by the number of cloisters they conatined, ranging from 6 to 120. Each cloister consisted of a main stand-alone building – a hall, pagoda of pavilion – and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building. Chinese and Confucianism, Confucian culture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in the East Asian cultural sphere, Sinosphere (mainly
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...
, Korea, Japan). Korean architecture, especially post Joseon, Choson period showcases Ming dynasty, Ming-Qing dynasty, Qing influences. Traditionally, Japanese architecture was made of wood and ''fusuma'' (sliding doors) in place of walls, allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes. The introduction of
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
in the mid 6th century, via the neighbouring Korean kingdom of Paekche, initiated large-scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity, and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures. By the end of this century, Japan was constructing Continental-style monasteries, notably the temple, known as Horyu-ji in Ikaruga. In contrast with Western architecture, Japanese structures rarely use stone, except for specific elements such as foundations. Walls are light, thin, never load-bearing and often movable.


Khmer

Roulos Group - 005 Bakong (8587796725).jpg, Bakong (Hariharalaya, Roluos, Cambodia), 9th century AD Prasat_Prang_Ku_Somboon-006.jpg, Prasat Prang Ku (Sisaket, Thailand), 12th century AD Angkor SiemReap Cambodia Ankor-Wat-01.jpg, Angkor Wat (Angkor, Cambodia), early 12th century AD My_Son.jpg, Mỹ Sơn, Champa Temples (Mỹ Sơn,
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...
), circa 4th century AD
From the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century, Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, was its capital city, and most of its surviving buildings are east-facing stone temples, many of them constructed in pyramidal, tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers, or ''prasats'', that represent the sacred five-peaked
Mount Meru Mount Meru ( Sanskrit/Pali: मेरु), also known as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all the physical, metaphysical and spir ...
of
Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
,
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
and
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
doctrine. As the residences of gods, temples were made of durable materials such as sandstone, brick or laterite, a clay-like substance that dries hard. Champa, Cham architecture in
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...
also follows a similar style.


Sub-Saharan Africa

Traditional Sub-Saharan African architecture is diverse, varying significantly across regions. Included among traditional house types, are huts, sometimes consisting of one or two rooms, as well as various larger and more complex structures.


West African and Bantu styles

File:King's palace in Nyanza.jpg, King's palace in Nyanza, Rwanda, Nyanza (Rwanda), unknown date File:Lunda houses-1854.jpg, Illustration from 1854 of Lunda street and houses File:Anna Hinderer building.jpg, Yoruba architecture depicted in a book by Anna Hinderer in the mid-1800s File:07 - (Die sheng) le symbole supreme et representatif de la chefferie et du peuple Bandjoun.JPG, Traditional Bamileke people, Bamileke architecture, main hall of the Bandjoun palace in Cameroon, with decoratively carved wooden columns and doorway, unknown date In much of West Africa, rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards, sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards, are also traditionally found (sometimes decorated, with adobe reliefs as among the Ashanti Empire, Ashanti of Ghana, or carved pillars as among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy) Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof, widespread in West Africa and Madagascar, there also other types of houses: beehive houses made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof, and the round one, with a cone-shaped roof. The first type, which also existed in America, is characteristic especially for Southern Africa. These were used by Bantu peoples, Bantu-speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa, which was made with mud, poles, thatch, and cow dung (rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu-speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa). The round hut with a cone-shaped roof is widespread especially in Sudan and Eastern Africa, but is also present in Colombia and New Caledonia, as well as in the Western Sudan and Sahel regions of west Africa, where they are sometimes arranged into compounds. A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon, such as the Bamileke people, Bamileke. In several West African societies, including the kingdom of Benin (and of other Edo peoples), and the kingdoms of the Yoruba, Hausa, at sites like Jenne-Jeno (a pre-Islamic city in Mali), and elsewhere, towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe, and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks, such as Sungbo's Eredo (in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu) and the Walls of Benin (of the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin). In medieval southern Africa, a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such as Great Zimbabwe and Khami. The famed Benin City of southwest Nigeria (capital of the Kingdom of Benin) destroyed by the Punitive Expedition, was a large complex of homes in coursed clay, with Hip roof, hipped roofs of Roof shingle, shingles or palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated with Benin Bronzes, brass plaques. It was surrounded by a monumental complex of Walls of Benin, earthworks and walls whose construction is thought to have began by the early Middle Ages. File:Cam0492 Habitation de Pouss.jpg, Beehive-shaped houses of the Musgum people, Musgum ethnic group in Pouss (Cameroon), unknown date File:Koussoukoingou2.jpg, A traditional house of the Tammari people in the Atakora Department of the northern Republic of Benin (not to be confused with the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin), unknown date File:Kumasi.png, Palace of Ashanti Empire, Ashanti Kwaku Dua of Kumasi, Ghana, 1896 File:DogonVillage.jpg, A Dogon people, Dogon village in Mali, with walls made in the wattle and daub method, unknown date File:Conical Tower - Great Enclosure III (33736918448).jpg, The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in Great Zimbabwe, a medieval city built by a prosperous culture, ca. 11th–14th century


Sahelian

File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg, The Great Mosque of Djenné (Djenné, Mali), an icon for the Sudano-Sahelian architecture, originally built in the 13th-14th centuries, rebuilt in 1907, adobe Larabanga Mosque Ghana.jpg, The Larabanga Mosque (Larabanga, northern Ghana), possibly built in the 15th century File:Kanogate.jpg, Hausa people, Hausa gate, the Gidan Rumfa in Kano (city), Kano, northern Nigeria, 15th century In the Western Sahel region, Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques, as described by Abu Abdullah al-Bakri, al-bakri, with one centered on Friday prayer. The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting. Sudano-Sahelian, Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore, Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné. The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood, mud-brick and adobe. Though later acquiring Islamic influences, the style also had roots in local pre-Islamic building styles, such as those found in ancient settlements like Jenne-Jeno, Dia, Mali, and Dhar Tichitt, some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick.


Ethiopian

File:Bet Giyorgis (5498439545).jpg, Large, monolithic churches such as the Church of Saint George, Lalibela, Church of Saint George (Lalibela), were hewn out of the ground in Ethiopia, late 12th or early 13th century Architecture of Ethiopia, Ethiopian architecture (including modern-day Eritrea) expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the rock-cut architecture, rock-cut monolithic churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region of Tigray Province, Tigray, which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. During the early modern period in Ethiopia, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati people, Gujarati style began with the arrival of Portugal, Portuguese Society of Jesus, Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.


Oceania

Nan madol.jpg, Ruins of Nan Madol (Pohnpei island, Federated States of Micronesia), circa 8th-13th centuries File:Men's club house, Palau, 1907 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00974.JPG, Men's club house, 1907, from Palau, now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin File:Abelam ceremonial supply house, Kalabu, Papua New Guinea, 1950 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00971.JPG, Detail of a ceremonial supply house, from Papua New Guinea, now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin File:Little world, Aichi prefecture - House of Yap in Micronesia.jpg, Traditional house in Micronesia, unknown date Most Oceanic buildings consist of huts, made of wood and other vegetal materials. Oceanian art, Art and architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion. The architecture of the Pacific Ocean, Pacific Islands was varied and sometimes large in scale. Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them, with considerable symbolic detail. Technically, most buildings in Oceania were no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings; only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known. Fakhua shen, Taboa shen and Kuhua shen (the shen triplets) designed the first oceanian architecture. An important Oceanic archaeological site is Nan Madol from the Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty, which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628.Nan Madol, Madolenihmw, Pohnpei
William Ayres, Department of Anthropology University Of Oregon, Accessed 26 September 2007
Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island, it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctive megalith, megalithic architecture beginning 1180–1200 AD.


Islamic

File:Jerusalem-2013(2)-Temple Mount-Dome of the Rock (SE exposure).jpg, Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), 691 File:Samarra, Iraq (25270211056) edited.jpg, Great Mosque of Samarra (Samarra,
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
), 851 File:Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam 2014-07-31.jpg, Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (Multan,
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-la ...
), 1320-1324 File:Alhambra Löwenhof mit Löwenbrunnen 2014.jpg, Court of the Lions (Alhambra, Granada, Spain), 1362-1391 File:Taj Mahal, Agra, India edit3.jpg, Taj Mahal (Agra, India), 1649, by Ustad Ahmad Lahori
Due to the extent of the Early Muslim conquests, Islamic conquests, Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of architectural styles from the foundation of Islam (7th century) to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman architecture, Roman, Byzantine architecture, Byzantine, Persian architecture, Persian, Architecture of Mesopotamia, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.Krautheimer, Richard
Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture
Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books Ltd., 1965, p. 285.
Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese architecture, Chinese and Architecture of India, Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles, including but not limited to: Umayyad Caliphate, Umayyad, Abbasid architecture, Abbasid, Persian architecture, Persian, Moorish architecture, Moorish, Fatimid architecture, Fatimid, Mamluk architecture, Mamluk, Ottoman architecture, Ottoman, Indo-Islamic architecture, Indo-Islamic (particularly Mughal architecture, Mughal), Architecture of Bengal, Medieval Bengali, Chinese mosques, Sino-Islamic and Sudano-Sahelian architecture, Sahelian architecture. Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture are mosques, madrasas, tombs, palaces, Hammam, baths, and forts. Notable types of Islamic religious architecture include hypostyle mosques, domed mosques and mausoleums, structures with vaulted iwans, and madrasas built around central courtyards. In secular architecture, major examples of preserved historic palaces include the Alhambra and the Topkapı Palace, Topkapi Palace. Islam does not encourage the worship of idols; therefore the architecture tends to be decorated with Arabic calligraphy (including Quran, Qur'anic verses or other poetry) and with more abstract motifs such as Islamic geometric patterns, geometric patterns, ''muqarnas'', and arabesques, as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories.


European


Medieval

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe. Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. New types of civic, military, as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period.


Byzantine

Santa sabina, interno 05.jpg, Santa Sabina, Basilica of Saint Sabina (Aventine Hill, Rome), 422-432 Istanbul Hagia Irene IMG 8067 1920.jpg, Hagia Irene (Istanbul,
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
), 6th century Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics.jpg, Basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy), 527-548 A015 Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna -.jpg, Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (Ravenna), 549 The Byzantine Church of Panagia Kapnikarea on March 19, 2020.jpg, Church of Panagia Kapnikarea, Kapnikarea (Athens), 1050
Byzantine architects built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges, Aqueduct (bridge), aqueducts, and churches. They built many types of churches, including the basilica (the most widespread type, and the one that reached the greatest development). After the early period, the most common layout was the cross-in-square with five domes, also found in Moscow, Novgorod or Kiev, as well as in
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
, Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia and Albania. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in all Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox countries. For example, in Romania, the Brâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics. Just as the
Parthenon The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
is the most famous building of Ancient Greek architecture, Hagia Sophia remains the iconic church of Orthodox Christianity. In Greek temple, Greek and Roman temples, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, where sacrifices were made; the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, often had limited access by the general public. But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches, Byzantine exteriors usually having little if any ornamentation. Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns, coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of mosaics with gold ground, golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin alabaster sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where fresco wouldn't resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki (Greece), the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo and the Basilica of San Vitale, both in Ravenna (Italy), and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.


Romanesque

Michaelisplatz, St. Michaelis, Innenraum Hildesheim 20171201-013.jpg, St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim, St. Michael's Church (Hildesheim, Germany), 1010-1031 Claustro de Santo Domingo de Silos. Panda sur.jpg, Portico of the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos (Santo Domingo de Silos, Spain), begun in 1085 Conques eglise face ter.jpg, Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy (Conques, France), 1087-1107 Durham Cathedral Nave.jpg, Interior of the Durham Cathedral (Durham, England, Durham, UK), 1093-1133 Glees Germany Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg, Maria Laach Abbey (Germany), 1093-1230 Roermond, de Munsterkerk RM32582 IMG 3036 2019-12-29 09.24.jpg, Munsterkerk (Roermond, The Netherlands), 1220 The term 'Romanesque' is rooted in the 19th century, when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century, before the rise of steeply pointed arches, flying buttresses and other Gothic elements. For 19th-century critics, the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carved capitals of the Ancient Rome, ancient Romans, but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate, lacking the sophistication of their classical models. Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a 'failure' to reproduce the achievements of the past, and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms, as a series of creative new inventions. At the time, however, research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term. On the surface, it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of rounded arches and thick stone masonry, and appear in between the Carolingian Renaissance#Carolingian architecture, Carolingian revival of classical antiquity in the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century. One problem, however, is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations, some with closer links to Rome than others. It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear. There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today, making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories. Nevertheless, Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations, because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past, but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner. Romanesque cathedrals can be differentiated pretty easy from Gothic and Byzantine ones, since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns, round arches and severity. Here, the possibilities of the round-arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full. Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic, the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns. In comparison to Byzantine churches, Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. An example of this is the Périgueux Cathedral (Périgueux, France), built in the early 12th century and designed on the model of St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, but lacking mosaics, leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic.


Gothic

Notre-Dame de Paris 2013-07-24.jpg, Notre-Dame de Paris, Notre-Dame Cathedral (Paris), begun in 1163, by various architects Canterbury Cathedral - Back 01.jpg, Canterbury Cathedral (Canterbury, Kent, the UK), 1174–1184, by William of Sens Notre Dame de Chartres.jpg, Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France), 1194-1250 Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg, Sainte-Chapelle (Paris), 1243-1248, by Pierre de Montreuil Bruges Belgium Town-hall-of-Brugge-01.jpg, Bruges City Hall, Town Hall (Bruges, Belgium), 1376-1420 Hôtel de Sens 1.jpg, Hôtel de Sens (Paris), 1475-1519 File:Gouda Stadhuis during sunny day 2017.jpg, Town Hall (1459), (Gouda, South Holland, Gouda, The Netherlands) Kaliningrad 05-2017 img04 Kant Island.jpg, Königsberg Cathedral, Kaliningrad, Russia (1330-1380) File:Bevel Koninklijke Marechaussee in handen van Leijtens-9.jpg, Ridderzaal (1288), (The Hague, South Holland, The Hague, The Netherlands) Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments, which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever-growing number of Pilgrimage, pilgrims visiting sites that housed precious relics. Pilgrims in the high Middle Ages (circa 1000 to 1250 AD) increasingly travelled to well-known pilgrimage sites, but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles. The churches and monasteries housing important relics therefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them. These shrines were not merely gem-encrusted reliquaries, but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas of stained glass. The use of stained glass, however, is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are the Pointed arch (architecture), pointed arch, the ribbed Vault (architecture), vault, the rose window or the flying buttress, as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions. It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements, along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time, that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture. Consequently, it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged; however, it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with the Basilica of St Denis (circa 1135–1344) and its patrons, Abbot Suger, who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church. As he wrote in his ''De Administratione'', the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis, and the solution for this twofold: a west façade with three large portal (architecture), portals and the innovative new Choir (architecture), choir, which combined an ambulatory with radiating chapels that were unique as they were not separated by walls. Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults. The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space, while also experiencing the large stained-glass windows within the chapels. As confirmed by Suger, the desire for more stained-glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light, rather like mosaics or precious stones, which would make the wall vanish. The demand for ever more stained-glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture, as is evident in the writings of Suger, who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting.


Renaissance

Florence Duomo (167859687).jpeg, Early Renaissance - Florence Cathedral (Florence, Italy), 1294–1436, by Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi and Emilio De Fabris Mantoue basilique saint andre bis.jpg, Early Renaissance - Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua, Basilica of Sant'Andrea (Mantua, Italy), begun 1470, by Leon Battista Alberti Tempietto del Bramante Vorderseite.jpg, High Renaissance - San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto, The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio, Rome), 1502, by Donato Bramante Giovanni Da Udine - Decoration of the Garden Loggia (detail) - WGA09427.jpg, High Renaissance - Villa Madama (outside Rome), 1518-1525, begun by Raphael Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg, Northern Renaissance - Château d'Azay-le-Rideau (Loire, France), 1518-1527 Chambord Castle Northwest facade.jpg, Northern Renaissance - Château de Chambord (Loire, France), 1519-1547, by Domenico da Cortona Palais Farnese.jpg, High Renaissance - Palazzo Farnese (Rome), 1534-1546, by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne.jpg, Mannerism - Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne (Rome), begun 1535, by Baldassare Peruzzi FR-Paris-Louvre-Cour carree-150726-PP-1080-small-enhanced-3069.jpg, Northern Renaissance - East facade of the Cour Carrée (Louvre, Paris), 1549-1555, by Pierre Lescot El Escorial View from the north-west.jpg, Mannerism - El Escorial (outside Madrid, Spain), 1559-1584, by Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera File:Delft Stadhuis (2).jpg, Northern Renaissance - City Hall (Delft) (Delft, The Netherlands), 1618-1620, by Hendrick de Keyser During the Renaissance, Italy consisted of many states, and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments. The House of Medici, Medici Family, an Italian banking family and political dynasty, is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture. The period began in around 1452, when the architect and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) completed his treatise ''De Re Aedificatoria'' (''On the Art of Building'') after studying the ancient ruins of Rome and Vitruvius's ''De Architectura''. His writings covered numerous subjects, including history, town planning, engineering, sacred geometry, humanism and philosophies of beauty, and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions. In the last decades of the 15th century, artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins, especially the
Colosseum The Colosseum ( ; it, Colosseo ) is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world t ...
and the Pantheon. They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings. While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century (dating back at least to Francesco Petrarca, Petrarch in the 14th century), antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary, epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains. Although some artists and architects, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), Donatello (circa 1386–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti, are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins, almost no direct evidence of this work survives. By the 1480s, prominent architects, such as Francesco di Giorgio (1439-1502) and Giuliano da Sabgallo (circa 1445–1516), were making numerous studies of ancient monuments, undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun. In many cases, drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination, as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of the Capitoline Hill, Campidoglio, noting 'largely imagined by me, since very little can be understood from the ruins. Soon, grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style, like the Pazzi Chapel (1441-1478) or the Palazzo Pitti (1458-1464). The Renaissance begun in Italy, but slowly spread to other parts of Europe, with varying interpretations. Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome's culture, it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman. However, because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had were
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome. The most iconic one is the margent, a vertical arrangement of flowers, leaves or hanging vines, used at pilasters. Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the round Medallion (architecture), medallion, containing a profile of a person, similar with Ancient Cameo (carving), cameos. Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and other post-medieval styles use putto, putti (chubby baby angels) much more often compared to Greco-Roman art and architecture. An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance, that was of Ancient Roman descent, that will also be used in later styles, is the cartouche (design), cartouche, an oval or oblong design with a slightly wikt:convex, convex surface, typically edged with ornamental scrollwork.


Worldwide


Baroque

Paris 75004 Temple du Marais (temple Sainte-Marie) 20151213.jpg, Temple du Marais, Paris, , by François Mansart San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - Front.jpg, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, 1638-1677, by Francesco Borromini File:Palacio Real, Ámsterdam, Países Bajos, 2016-05-30, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg, Royal Palace of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1648-1665, by Jacob van Campen St Peter's Square, Vatican City - April 2007.jpg, St. Peter's Square, Rome, 1656-1667, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini Kasteel van Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy 06.jpg, Gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, 1657-1661, by André Le Nôtre Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg, Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, - 1715, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg, Les Invalides, Dôme des Invalides, Paris, 1677-1706, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart Palace of Versailles June 2010.jpg, Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, 1678–1688, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart Wien Graben Pestsäule Ostseite.jpg, Plague Column, Vienna, Plague Column, Vienna, 1682 and 1694, by Matthias Rauchmiller and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg, Chapels of Versailles#Fifth Chapel, Chapel of the Palace of Versailles (Versailles), 1696–1710 Karlskirche Wien September 2016.jpg, Karlskirche (Vienna, Austria), 1715-1737, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach The Baroque emerged from the Counter Reformation as an attempt by the Catholic Church in Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God. The Baroque and its late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts. Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800. Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout Italian Baroque architecture, Italy, Spanish Baroque architecture, Spain and Baroque architecture in Portugal, Portugal, Flanders, French Baroque architecture, France, the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from Munich (Germany) to Vilnius (Lithuania). The Portuguese Empire, Portuguese, Spanish Empire, Spanish and French colonial empire, French empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as Lima, Mozambique, Goa and the Philippines. Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions, multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location, different in some aspects, but similar overall. For example, French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison, preempting Neoclassical architecture, Neoclassicism and the architecture of the Age of Enlightenment. Hybrid Native American/European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America (as opposed to Mexico) in the late 17th century, after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media, a very good example of this being th
Jesuir Church
in Arequipa (Peru). The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals, churches and monasteries, soon joined by civic buildings, mansions, and palaces. Being characterized by dynamism, for the first time walls, façades and interiors curved, a good example being San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome. Baroque architects took the basic elements of Renaissance architecture, including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use of ''quadratura'', or ''trompe-l'œil'' painting combined with sculpture: the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding. Solomonic columns were often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element. Besides architecture, Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too. This is in contrast with how static and peaceful Renaissance art is. Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed had a role too. Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, designed to tower over the city. A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale, Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike. It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities, and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them. The most notable early example was Domenico Fontana's restructuring of Rome's street plan of Pope Sixtus V. Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance, examples being Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) planning a centralized model city, with streets leading to a central piazza, or Filarete (Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino, -) designing a round city named Sforzinda (1451-1456) that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants. However, none of these idealistic cities has ever been built. In fact, few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas, with existing churches and palaces, could not be demolished. Only in the Americas, where architects often had a clean space to work with, were such cities possible, as in Lima (Peru) or Buenos Aires (Argentina). The earliest Baroque ideal city is Zamość, built north-east of Krakow (Poland) by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando (-1600), being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets. Where entire cities could not be rebuilt, patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares, often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain, statue or obelisk. A good example of this is the Place des Vosges (formerly Place Royale), commissioned by Henry IV of France, Henry IV probably after plans by Baptiste du Cerceau (1545-1590). The most famous Baroque space in the world is Gianlorenzo Bernini's St. Peter's Square in Rome. Similar with ideal urban planning, Baroque gardens are characterized by straight and readapting avenues, with geometric spaces.


Rococo

Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg, Zwinger (Dresden), Zwinger (Dresden, Germany), 1719, by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann File:Interieur, overzicht van de kerk na de restauraties van de schilderingen. - Houthem - 20423664 - RCE.jpg, Château St. Gerlach (Valkenburg aan de Geul, The Netherlands), 1735, by Laurenz Mefferdatis Porte de l'hôtel de Chenizot.jpg, Door of the Hôtel de Chenizot (Paris), 1719, by Pierre Vigné de Vigny File:Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg, The ceiling of the oval Salon of the Princesse in Hôtel de Soubise (Paris), 1740, by Germain Boffrand Palais royal de Queluz - Vue générale.jpg, Palace of Queluz (Lisbon, Portugal), 1752, by Mateus Vicente de Oliveira Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG, Wieskirche, Pilgrimage Church of Wies (Steingaden, Germany), 1754, by Dominikus Zimmermann, Dominikus and Johann Baptist Zimmermann The name ''Rococo'' derives from the French word ''rocaille'', which describes shell-covered rock-work, and ''coquille'', meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe. Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests. Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells, icicles and rock-work or grotto decoration. Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms, laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames. A favourite motif was the scallop shell, whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of the arabesques and whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration. While few Rococo exteriors were built in France, a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany. Other widely-user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include: acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, elements associated with love (putto, putti, quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts) Trophy of arms, trophies of arms, putto, putti, medallions with faces, many many flowers, and Chinoiserie, Far Eastern elements (pagoda, pagodes, dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers, bamboo, and Chinese people). Pastel colours were widely used, like light blue, mint green or pink. Rococo designers also loved mirrors (the more the better), an example being the Hall of Mirrors of the Amalienburg (Munich, Germany), by Johann Baptist Zimmermann. Generally, mirrors are also featured above fireplaces.


Exoticism

Chinese House Potsdam-, Germany.jpg, Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie - Chinese House (Potsdam), Chinese House, (Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany), 1755-1764, by Johann Gottfried Büring Stockholm Sweden Royal-Domain-of Drottningholm Drottningholms-Kina-Slott-01.jpg, Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie - Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm, Chinese Pavilion (Ekerö Municipality, Sweden), 1763–1769, by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz MoscheeSchwetzingen Panorama quad-mj.jpg, Islamic inspiration - Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace (Germany), 1779-1795, by Nicolas de Pigage Haga Park March 2015 01.jpg, Islamic inspiration - Turkish Tent (Hagaparken, Stockholm, Sweden), 1787, by Louis Jean Desprez The Royal Pavilion Brighton UK.jpg, Islamic inspiration - Royal Pavilion (Brighton, the UK), 1787-1823, by John Nash (architect), John Nash Hôtel de Beauharnais.jpg, Egyptian inspiration/
Egyptian Revival Egyptian Revival is an architectural style that uses the motifs and imagery of ancient Egypt. It is attributed generally to the public awareness of ancient Egyptian monuments generated by Napoleon's conquest of Egypt and Admiral Nelson's defeat ...
- portico of the Hôtel Beauharnais (Paris), 1804, L.E.N. Bataille Egyptian Building.JPG, Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival - Egyptian Building, part of the Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, Virginia, Richmond, Virginia, USA), 1845, by Thomas Stewart File:Facade, Mayan Theater, Los Angeles.jpg, Pre-Columbian inspiration/Mayan Revival architecture, Mayan Revival - facade detail of the Mayan Theater (Los Angeles, USA), 1927, by Stiles O. Clements Paris 10e Cinéma Le Louxor 965.jpg, Egyptian inspiration/mix of Egyptian Revival and Art Deco - Le Louxor Cinema (Paris), 1919-1921, by Henri Zipcy 450 Sutter St. lobby 1.JPG, Pre-Columbian inspiration/mix of Mayan Revival and Art Deco - interior detail of 450 Sutter Street (San Francisco, California), 1929, by Timothy L. Pflueger
The interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics. Because of being something rare and new to Westerners, some non-European styles were really appreciated during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces, or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this. Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics, Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time. A good example of this is chinoiserie, a Western decorative style, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques. Chinese art wasn't the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented. Another was the Islamic architecture, Islamic one. Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace in Germany (the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque), the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, or the Moorish Revival architecture, Moorish Revival buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, with horseshoe arches and brick patterns. When it come to the Orient, Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt. Compared to other cases of exoticism, the one with the land of
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the a ...
s is the oldest one, since Ancient Greece, Ancient Greeks and Ancient Rome, Romans had this interest during Antiquity. The main periods when
Egyptian Revival Egyptian Revival is an architectural style that uses the motifs and imagery of ancient Egypt. It is attributed generally to the public awareness of ancient Egyptian monuments generated by Napoleon's conquest of Egypt and Admiral Nelson's defeat ...
monuments were erected were the early 19th century, with Napoleon's military campaigns in Egypt, and the 1920s, when the Tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in 1922, which caused an Egyptomania that lead to Art Deco sometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt. During the late 18th and early 19th century, Neoclassicism sometimes mixed Greco-Roman elements with Egyptian ones. Because of its association with
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the a ...
s, death and eternity, multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style. Besides mortuary structures, other buildings in this style include certain synagogues, like the Karlsruhe Synagogue or some Empire style, Empire monuments built during the reign of Nepoleon, such as the Egyptian portico of the Hôtel Beauharnais or the Fontaine du Fellah. During the 1920s and 1930s, Pre-Columbian era, Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican architecture was of great interest for some American architects, particularly what the Maya civilization, Mayans built. Several of Frank Lloyd Wright's California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style, while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones.


Neoclassicism

Stourhead Bridge A.jpg, English landscape garden at Stourhead (the UK), the 1740s, by Henry Hoare Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg, Panthéon (Paris), 1758–1790, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot (1713-1780) and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet (1743-1829) L'Hôtel de la Marine (Paris) (51346237676).jpg, Hôtel de la Marine (Paris), 1761-1770, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg, The Hall (Osterley Park, London), 1767, by Robert Adam Bordeaux Grand Théâtre R03.jpg, Stairway of the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux, Grand Theater of Bordeaux (Bordeaux, France), 1777-1780, by Victor Louis Cabinet dore Marie-Antoinette Versailles.jpg, The Cabinet Doré of Marie-Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France), 1783, by the Rousseau brothers File:Paviljoen Welgelegen panoramanorama 1.JPG, Villa Welgelegen, 1789 (Haarlem, The Netherlands) Château de Malmaison, France (48029730202).jpg, Empress Joséphine's Bedroom in Château de Malmaison (Rueil-Malmaison, France), 1800-1802, by Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine Château de Rambouillet - Salle de bains de Napoléon.jpg, Napoleon's bath of the Château de Rambouillet (Rambouillet, France), 1806, painted by Godard and Jean Vasserot 150214 Neue Wache Berlin.jpg, Neue Wache ( Berlin), 1816, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Salomo Sachs Burns Monument (43281676364).jpg, Burns Monument (Edinburgh, the UK) 1820-1831, by Thomas Hamilton (architect), Thomas Hamilton Neoclassical architecture focused on Ancient Greek architecture, Ancient Greek and
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
details, plain, white walls and grandeur of scale. Compared to the previous styles, Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist, featuring straight and angular lines, but being still ornamented. The style's clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings (such as the Panthéon in Paris) and for smaller structures alike (such as the Petit Trianon). Excavations during the 18th century at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, inspired a return to order amd rationality. In the mid-18th century, ancient history, antiquity was upheld as a standard for architecture as never before. Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning. In the 1750s, an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started, which will continue in the 19th century. Marc-Antoine Laugier wrote in 1753 that 'Architecture owes all that is perfect to the Ancient Greece, Greeks'. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia. Federal architecture, Federal-style architecture is the name for the classicizing architecture built in North America between c. 1780 and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with its era, the Federalist Era, Federal Period. The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period. The style broadly corresponds to the middle-class classicism of Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Regency style in Britain and to the French Empire style. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to as ''Classicism'' (german: Klassizismus, russian: Классицизм), while the newer Revivalism (architecture), Revival styles of the 19th century until today are called neoclassical. Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) was a visionary architect of the period. His utopian projects, never built, included a monument to Isaac Newton (1784) in the form of an immense dome, with an oculus allowing the light to enter, giving the impression of a sky full of stars. Hi
project for an enlargement of the Royal Library
(1785) was even more dramatic, with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books. While none of his projects were ever built, the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms. Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods, during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too. Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writers of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time, the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses. Voltaire openly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works, improve the quality of life in towns, and stimulate the economy. 'It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities. There must be public markets, fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements. The narrow and infected streets must be widened, monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see', Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on 'The Embellishments of Paris' in 1749. In the same year, La Font de Saint-Yenne, criticized how Louis XIV's great Louvre Colonnade, east façade of the Louvre, was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses. Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome, it was necessary to demolish more than it was to built. 'Our towns are still what they were, a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system, planning or design', Marc-Antoine Laugier complained in 1753. Writing a decade later, Pierre Patte promoted an urban reform in quest of health, social order, and security, launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons. With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological, Patte asserted, calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets. Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air, and for the same reason houses on the city's bridges should be demolished. He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards. Besides cities, new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England, making place for the English landscape garden (aka ''jardin à l'anglaise''), characterized by an idealized view of nature, and the use of Greco-Roman or Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically planned Baroque garden (aka ''jardin à la française'').


Revivalism and Eclecticism

All Saints Margaret Street Interior 2, London, UK - Diliff.jpg, Gothic Revival Architecture, Gothic Revival - Interior of the All Saints, Margaret Street, All Saints, London, 1850–1859, by William Butterfield Saint Augustin Church Paris.jpg, Eclecticism in architecture, Eclectic - The Saint-Augustin, Paris, Église Saint-Augustin de Paris, 1860–1868, by Victor Baltard Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus_%28Victoria_Terminus%29.jpg, Indo-Saracenic architecture, Indo-Saracenic - The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, previously Victoria Terminus, Mumbai, India, 1878–88, a mixture of Romanesque architecture, Romanesque, Gothic and Indian elements File:Cathedral Saint Alexander Nevsky (23997180108).jpg, Byzantine Revival architecture, Byzantine Revival - Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia, Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1882–1912, by Alexander Pomerantsev File:La haye palais paix jardin face.JPG, Renaissance Revival architecture, Renaissance Revival - Peace Palace, The Hague, The Netherlands, 1907, by Louis Marie Cordonnier File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg, Russian Revival architecture, Russian Revival - Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Moscow, Russia Belfast City Hall 2.jpg, Baroque Revival architecture, Neo-Baroque - Belfast City Hall, Belfast, UK, 1898–1906, by Brumwell Thomas Beaney Institute 002.jpg, Tudor Revival architecture - The Beaney House of Art and Knowledge, Canterbury, England, 1899, by A.H. Campbell Immeuble rue La Boétie, rue de Miromesnil, Paris 8e.jpg, Rococo Revival - Apartment building no. 8 on Rue de Miromesnil, Paris, 1900, by P. Lobrot Place Beauvau (731).jpg, Louis XVI Revival - Apartment building no. 2 on Rue de Miromesnil, Paris, 1900, unknown architect 56, Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (Romania).jpg, Romanian Revival architecture, Romanian Revival - The C.N. Câmpeanu House on Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest,
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
, , by Constantin Nănescu Ankara asv2021-10 img23 Ziraat Bank Museum.jpg, First national architectural movement, First national movement - Ziraat Bank Museum, Ankara,
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, 1929, by Giulio Mongeri
The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations. Revivalism (architecture), Revivalism in
architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a Architectural style, previous architectural era. Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized within New Classical architecture, and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture. The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the French Revolution. As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: Egyptian Revival architecture, Egyptian for prisons, Gothic Revival architecture, Gothic for churches, or Renaissance Revival architecture, Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the a ...
s with death and eternity, the Middle Ages with Christianity, or the House of Medici, Medici family with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Whether their choice was Neoclassical architecture, Classical, medieval, or Renaissance Revival architecture, Renaissance, all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state. The most well-known Revivalist style is the Gothic Revival architecture, Gothic Revival one, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being the Strawberry Hill House. German Romantism, Romantic writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided. Johann Gottfried Herder posed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'. In art and architecture history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France. In India, during the British Raj, a new style, Indo-Saracenic architecture, Indo-Saracenic, (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, or Hindoo style) was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. The Churches and convents of Goa are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880. The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals". They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.


Beaux-Arts

Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg, Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, by Charles Garnier (architect), Charles Garnier, 1860–1875 Opera Garnier Grand Escalier.jpg, Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier (architect), Charles Garnier, 1860–1875 Palacio CEC, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 91-93 HDR.jpg, The CEC Palace on Calea Victoriei, Victory Avenue, Bucharest,
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
, by Paul Gottereau, 1897-1900 The Cantacuzino Palace from Bucharest (Romania).jpg, Cantacuzino Palace, Bucharest, by Ion D. Berindey, 1898-1906 Petit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg, Petit Palais, Paris, by Charles Giraud, 1900 Building at the intersection of Calea Victoriei with Strada Franklin, Bucharest, circa 1900, by Leonida Negrescu.jpg, Anker Building, Bucharest, by Leonida Negrescu, 1900 Image-Grand central Station Outside Night 2.jpg, Grand Central Terminal, New York City, by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903 29 avenue Bugeaud Paris.jpg, Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by André Arfvidson Della Faillelaan 23, Antwerpen.jpg, Villa, Antwerp, Belgium, by Michel de Braey, 1913
The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects like Charles Girault, Thomas Hastings (architect), Thomas Hastings, Ion D. Berindey or Petre Antonescu. Today, from Bucharest to Buenos Aires and from San Francisco to Brussels, the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by the Palais Garnier, Paris Opéra House (1860-1875), designed by Charles Garnier (architect), Charles Garnier, the masterpiece of the 19th century Haussmann's renovation of Paris, renovation of Paris, dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called a ''style actuel'', which was influenced by the spirit of the time, aka Zeitgeist, and reflected the designer's personal taste. Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for a
Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. However, it wasn't just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical architecture, Neoclassicism etc.


Industry and new technologies

Kew Gardens Palm House, London - July 2009.jpg, Palm House, Kew Gardens, Palm house (London), 1848, by Richard Turner (iron-founder), Richard Turner and Decimus Burton Les Halles, Paris, by Victor Baltard, 1852-1855.jpg, Les Halles (Paris), 1852-1855, by Victor Baltard Crystal.Palace.Paxton.Plan.jpg, Plan and elevation for the Crystal Palace (London), 1854, by Joseph Paxton Le Bon Marché, 001.jpg, Le Bon Marché (Paris), 1872, by Louis-Charles Boileau in collaboration with the engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel Antwerpen, centraal station oeg7051 vanaf perron4 IMG 1134 2017-08-27 14.01.jpg, Antwerpen-Centraal railway station, 1895–1905, by Louis Delacenserie File:De Binnen Amstel gezien naar het in 1866 gedempte Amstelgrachtje, thans Maarten Jansz Kosterstraat, en het Paleis voor Volksvlijt op het Frederiksplein.jpg, Paleis voor Volksvlijt, 1859–1964, by Cornelis Outshoorn Because of the Industrial Revolution and the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings have appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building is the Crystal Palace from Hyde Park, London, Hyde Park (London), built in 1851 to house the Great Exhibition, having an appearance similar with a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting. The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled, Aristide Boucicaut opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first department store, Le Bon Marché in Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with French Renaissance Revival architecture, Renaissance Revival motifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled by Louis-Charles Boileau, in collaboration with the young engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel. In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.


Art Nouveau

Tassel House stairway.JPG, Hôtel Tassel (Brussels, Belgium), 1894, by Victor Horta File:Castel Béranger, February 16, 2013.jpg, Entrance of the Castel Béranger (Paris), 1895–1898, by Hector Guimard Wien, Friedrichstraße 12, Secession-20160621-011.jpg, Secession Building (Vienna, Austria), 1897, by Joseph Maria Olbrich FMarbeuf.jpg, La Fermette Marbeuf (Paris), 1898, by Émile Hurtré 12 Rue Sédillot, Paris (01).jpg, Leonardo da Vinci Highschool (Paris), 1899, by Jules Lavirotte Alphonse mucha, boutique fouquet, 1899, 02.JP
Bijouterie Fouquet
(Musée Carnavalet, Paris), , by Alphonse Mucha Paris Metro 2 Porte Dauphine Libellule.JPG, The Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro), Porte Dauphine Métro Station (Paris), by Hector Guimard, 1900 Maison Huot de style art nouveau (Nancy) (7966479700).jp
Maison Huot
(Nancy, France, Nancy, France), 1903, by Émile André File:Casa Batllo Overview Barcelona Spain cut.jpg, Casa Batlló (Barcelona, Spain), 1904–1906, by Antoni Gaudí 9 Strada Biserica Amzei, Bucharest (01).jpg, Mița the Cyclist House (Bucharest,
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
), 1910, by Nicolae C. Mihăescu
Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the modern architecture of the 20th century. Between 1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression. Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style wasn't completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularly Beaux-Arts architecture, the Arts and Crafts movement, aestheticism and Japanese art, Japanese art. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro), Porte Dauphine by Hector Guimard (1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted in ''The Grammar of Ornament'' (1854), a pattern book by British architect Owen Jones (architect) (1809-1874). Whiplash (decorative art), Whiplash curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired by Celtic art, Gothic Revival architecture, Gothic Revival, Rococo Revival, and Baroque Revival architecture, Baroque Revival. In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of the Romanian Revival architecture, Romanian Revival style, which draws inspiration from Brâncovenesc architecture and traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known as ''Modern Style'', in the Netherlands as ''Nieuwe Kunst'', in Germany and Austria as ''Jugendstil'', in Italy as ''Liberty style'', in Romania as ''Arta 1900'', and in Japan as ''Shiro-Uma''. It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.


Modern

Casa Steiner - Foto Fachada Trasera.jpg, Steiner House (Vienna, Austria), 1910, by Adolf Loos Fagus Gropius Hauptgebaeude 200705 wiki front.jpg, Fagus Factory (Alfeld, Germany), 1911, by Walter Gropius VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg, Villa Tugendhat (Brno, the Czech Republic), 1930, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century.
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau (; ) is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. The style is known by different names in different languages: in German, in Italian, in Catalan, and also known as the Modern ...
paved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the Bauhaus and the International Style (architecture), International Style, both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.


Art Deco

The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin, now in the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris.png, The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin (now in the Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris, Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris), before 1925, by Armand-Albert Rateau Paris-FR-75-Expo 1925 Arts décoratifs-pavillon des Galeries Lafayette (cropped).jpg, Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts (Paris), 1925, by Jean Hiriart, Georges Tribout and Georges Beau La samaritaine as seen from the Pont Neuf.jpg, La Samaritaine (Paris), 1926–1928, by Henri Sauvage Chrysler Building spire, Manhattan, by Carol Highsmith (LOC highsm.04444).png, Chrysler Building (New York City), 1930, by William Van Allen Biarritz - Musée de la mer (edited).jpg, Biarritz Aquarium, Musée de la Mer (Biarritz, France), 1933, by Joseph Hiriart File:Radio Kootwijk Zendgebouw.jpg, Radio Kootwijk in Kootwijk, The Netherlands (1927), by Julius Luthmann Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming more Streamline Moderne, streamlined and modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s. Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew on Ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient Egyptian,
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
,
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, African architecture, African, Aztecs, Aztec and Japanese architecture, Japanese influences, but also on Futurism, Cubism and the Bauhaus. Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials include chrome plating, brass, polished
steel Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resist ...
and aluminium, inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.


International Style

The Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, 2010.jpg, Barcelona Pavilion (Barcelona, Spain), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1929 VillaSavoye.jpg, Villa Savoye (Poissy, France), by Le Corbusier, 1929-1930 Lever House 390 Park Avenue.jpg, Lever House (New York City), by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1952 NewYorkSeagram 04.30.2008.JPG, Seagram Building (New York City), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1958 The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, including De Stijl and Streamline Moderne, and had a close relationship to the Bauhaus. The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and chrome plating. Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architect Philip Johnson and historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1903-1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized by Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, or Le Corbusier and was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.


Brutalist

Yale-Art-and-Architecture-Building-Rudolph-Hall-New-Haven-Connecticut-Apr-2014.jpg, Rudolph Hall (New Haven, Connecticut, New Haven, Connecticut, USA), 1963, by Paul Rudolph (architect), Paul Rudolph Montreal - QC - Habitat67 2.jpg, Habitat 67 (Montreal, Canada), 1966–1967, by Moshe Safdie Geisel Library 3 2013-08-08.jpg, Geisel Library (San Diego, California, USA), 1970, by William Pereira Robarts Library-2.jpg, Robarts Library (Toronto, Canada), 1973, by Mathers & Halden Architects Seattle Freeway Park 24.jpg, Freeway Park Fountain (Seattle, Washington (state), Washington, USA), 1976, by Lawrence Halprin Based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired by Le Corbusier's 1947-1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseilles. It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect Hans Asplund (1921-1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the description ''béton brut'', meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.


Postmodern

File:PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg, Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans), Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans, USA), 1978, by Charles Moore (architect), Charles Moore File:Stuttgart - Neue Staatsgalerie (35736927202).jpg, Neue Staatsgalerie (Stuttgart, Germany), 1984, by James Stirling (architect), James Stirling File:Sony Building by David Shankbone crop.jpg, 550 Madison Avenue, AT&T Headquarters (New York City), 1984, by Philip Johnson and John Burgee File:The Walt Disney Company office.jpg, Team Disney Building (Los Angeles, USA), 1990, by Michael Graves File:Cambridge University Judge Business School interior.jpg, Multicolour interior of the Cambridge Judge Business School (Cambridge, the UK), 1995, by John Outram File:Cancillería Federal, Berlín, Alemania, 2016-04-21, DD 37-39 HDR.JPG, Federal Chancellery, Berlin, Bundeskanzleramt ( Berlin,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
), 1997-2001, by Axel Schultes and Charlotte Frank
No one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architect Robert Venturi (1925-2018) had published his book, ''Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture'', which praised the originality and creativity of Mannerist architecture, Mannerist and Baroque architecture of Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.


Deconstructivist

Wexner Center for the Arts by Peter Eisenman.jpg, Wexner Center for the Arts (Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, US), 1989, by Peter Eisenman Vitra Campus - Hadid Fire Station - full view, blue sky.jp
Vitra Fire Station
(Weil am Rhein,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
), 1989–1993, by Zaha Hadid Jewish Museum Berlin - panoramio (3).jpg, Jewish Museum Berlin, Jewish Museum ( Berlin,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
), 1992–1999, by Daniel Libeskind Bilbao - Guggenheim aurore.jpg, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao, Spain), opened in 1997, by Frank Gehry 5307 Wolfsburg.JPG, Phaeno Science Center (Wolfsburg,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
), 2005, by Zaha Hadid
Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, Nonlinear (arts), non-linear processes of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparent non-Euclidean geometry, (i.e., non-rectilinear polygon, rectilinear shapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of the Design principles and elements, elements of architecture, such as structure and building envelope, envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos. Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 Parc de la Villette architectural design competition (especially the entry from the French philosopher Jacques Derrida and the American architect Peter EisenmanJacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman, ''Chora L Works'' (New York: Monacelli Press, 1997) and Bernard Tschumi's winning entry), the Museum of Modern Art's 1988 ''Deconstructivist Architecture'' exhibition in New York, organized by Philip Johnson and Mark Wigley, and the 1989 opening of the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio, Columbus, designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelblau, and Bernard Tschumi. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.


See also

*History of art *Outline of architecture *Timeline of architecture *Timeline of architectural styles *History of architectural engineering


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Modernism * * * * * *


Further reading

* ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture'' Banister Fletcher, Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996.


External links

*
The Society of Architectural Historians web site The Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain web site The Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand web site European Architectural History Network web site

Western Architecture Timeline Extensive collection of source documents in the history, theory and criticism of 20th-century architecture
{{Authority control Architectural history, Architectural design Art history by medium, Architecture