''Huangdi'' (), translated into English as Emperor, was the superlative title held by monarchs of China who ruled various imperial regimes in Chinese history. In traditional Chinese political theory, the

emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...

was considered the Son of Heaven and the autocrat of all under Heaven. Under the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...

Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...

replaced Legalism as the official political theory and

succession Succession is the act or process of following in order or sequence. Governance and politics *Order of succession, in politics, the ascension to power by one ruler, official, or monarch after the death, resignation, or removal from office of ...

in most cases theoretically followed

agnatic primogeniture Primogeniture ( ) is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn legitimate child to inherit the parent's entire or main estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some children, any illegitimate child or any collateral relativ ...

. The lineage of emperors descended from a paternal family line constituted a

dynasty A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A ...

. The absolute authority of the emperor came with a variety of governing duties and moral obligations; failure to uphold these was thought to remove the dynasty's Mandate of Heaven and to justify its overthrow. In practice, emperors sometimes avoided the strict rules of succession and dynasties' ostensible "failures" were detailed in official histories written by their successful replacements. The power of the emperor was also limited by the imperial bureaucracy, which was staffed by

scholar-officials The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...

and in some dynasties

eunuchs A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...

. An emperor was also constrained by filial obligations to his ancestors' policies and dynastic traditions, such as those first detailed in the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

's '' Ancestral Instructions''.

Origin and history

During the

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...

(c. 1046 BC – 256 BC), Chinese feudal rulers with power over their particular fiefdoms were called '' gong'' () but, as the power of the

Shang The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...

and Zhou

king King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, queen, which title is also given to the queen consort, consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contempora ...

s (,Baxter, William & al.
Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction
''. 2011. Accessed 22 Dec 2013.

mod. The University of South Australia (UniSA) is a public research university in the Australian state of South Australia. It is a founding member of the Australian Technology Network of universities, and is the largest university in South Austral ...

''wang'') waned, the dukes began to usurp that title for themselves. In 221 BCE, after the then-king of Qin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the

Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...

, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the rulers before him. He called himself '' Shi Huangdi'', the First Emperor. Before this, ''Huang'' () and ''Di'' () were the nominal "titles" of eight rulers of

Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Much of ...

prehistory Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The us ...

: The three ''

Huang Huang or Hwang may refer to: Location * Huang County, former county in Shandong, China, current Longkou City * Yellow River, or Huang River, in China * Huangshan, mountain range in Anhui, China * Huang (state), state in ancient China. * Hwang Riv ...

'' (, "august, sovereign") were godly rulers credited with feats like ordering the sky and forming the first humans out of clay; the five '' Di'' (, , also often translated as "emperor" but also meaning "the God of

Heaven Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...

") were cultural heroes credited with the invention of

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...

clothing Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natura ...

astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...

music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...

, etc. In the 3rd century BCE, the two titles had not previously been used together. Because of the god-like powers of the ''Huang'', the folk worship of the ''Di'', and the latter's use in the name of the God of Heaven Shangdi, however, the First Emperor's title would have been understood as implying "The August Ancestor", "The Holy Ruler", or "The Divine Lord". On that account, some modern scholars translate the title as "

thearch Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs. Etymology The word theocracy originates fro ...

".Nadeau, Randall L. ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions''
pp. 54 ff.
John Wiley & Sons (Chichester), 2012. Accessed 22 December 2013. On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled the '' Taishang Huang'' (), the "Grand Imperial Sire". The practice was initiated by the First Emperor, who gave the title as a

posthumous name A posthumous name is an honorary name given mostly to the notable dead in East Asian culture. It is predominantly practiced in East Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Thailand. Reflecting on the person's accomplishm ...

to his own father. Liu Bang, who established the

, was the first to become emperor while his father yet lived. It was said he granted the title during his father's life because he would not be done obeisance to by his own father, a commoner. Owing to political fragmentation, over the centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Emperor of All China". The Chinese political concept of the Mandate of Heaven essentially legitimized those claimants who emerged victorious. The proper list was considered those made by the official dynastic histories; the compilation of a history of the preceding dynasty was considered one of the hallmarks of legitimacy, along with symbols such as the Nine Ding or the

Heirloom Seal of the Realm The Heirloom Seal of the Realm (), also known in English as the Imperial Seal of China, was a Chinese jade seal carved out of Heshibi, a sacred piece of jade.The Complete Collection of Treasures of the Palace Museum, Beijing 30: Imperial Seal ...

. As with the First Emperor, it was very common also to retroactively grant posthumous titles to the ancestors of the victors; even in Chinese historiography, however, such grants were not considered to elevate emperors prior to the successful declaration of a new dynasty. The Yuan and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

dynasties were founded by successful invaders; as part of their rule over

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...

, however, they also went through the rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on the Chinese title of ''Huangdi'', in addition to the titles of their respective people. Thus,

Kublai Khan Kublai ; Mongolian script: ; (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China and the fifth khagan-emperor of ...

was simultaneously

khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...

of the

Mongols The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...

and emperor of China.

End of the imperial system

In 1911, the title of

Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet The Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was a position created on 8 May 1911 during the late Qing dynasty, as part of the imperial government's unsuccessful attempts at creating a constitutional monarchy in China. History In the early 190 ...

was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into a

constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...

. The

Xuantong Emperor Aisin-Gioro Puyi (; 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), was the last emperor of China as the eleventh and final Qing dynasty monarch. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate on 1 ...

(Puyi) of the Qing dynasty was the de jure last emperor of China, abdicated on 12 February 1912, thus ending the imperial tradition after more than 2,100 years. YuanShikaiPresidente1915

Yuan Shikai, former

President of the Republic of China The president of the Republic of China, now often referred to as the president of Taiwan, is the head of state of the Republic of China (ROC), as well as the commander-in-chief of the Republic of China Armed Forces. The position once had ...

, attempted to restore a monarchy with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however his reign as emperor ended on 22 March 1916. Puyi was briefly restored for almost two weeks during a coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. He later became the emperor of

Manchukuo Manchukuo, officially the State of Manchuria prior to 1934 and the Empire of (Great) Manchuria after 1934, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Manchuria from 1932 until 1945. It was founded as a republic in 1932 after the Japanese ...

, a Japanese puppet state, and was captured by the

Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Russian language, Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist R ...

as a prisoner of war after

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...

and held in Chita,

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...

. He was returned to China and imprisoned in Fushun War Criminals Management Centre, and after he was released lived until 1967. The current head of the family of the ex-Qing dynasty is

Jin Yuzhang Jin Yuzhang (, born 3 May 1942) is a Chinese civil servant, politician and former nobleman. He is the current head of the House of Aisin-Gioro, Chinese Monarchy's former ruling house. His father was Manchu nobleman Jin Youzhi, and he is a nephew ...

, who has worked for various local councils on China and makes no claim to the imperial throne.

Number of emperors

Confucian historiography holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying the "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whether Wei or Shu was the legitimate dynasty during the Three Kingdoms, and at what point the Song dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of the Yuan dynasty. The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to the Kangxi Emperor. Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi. By one count, from the

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...

to the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

, there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed the title "emperor", several of them simultaneously. Some, such as

Li Zicheng Li Zicheng (22 September 1606 – 1645), born Li Hongji, also known by the nickname, Dashing King, was a Chinese peasant rebel leader who overthrew the Ming dynasty in 1644 and ruled over northern China briefly as the emperor of the short-li ...

, Huang Chao, and Yuan Shu, declared themselves the emperors, Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among the most famous emperors were

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of " king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Empero ...

of the

, the emperors Gaozu and Wu of the

, Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty,

of the Yuan dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty, and the

Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...

of the

."看版圖學中國歷史", p.5, Publisher: Chung Hwa Book Company, Year: 2006, Author: 陸運高, .

Power

The emperor's words were considered sacred edicts () and his written proclamations "directives from above" (). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of the Imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members. In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle, emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through

absolute rule Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power over a state is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject neither to external legal restraints nor to regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perh ...

: examples include

of the Qin, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Emperor Guangwu of Han, Emperor Taizong of the

Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) ...

of the Yuan, and the

of the Qing. These emperors ruled as absolute monarchs throughout their reign, maintaining a centralized grip on the country. During the Song dynasty, the emperor's power was significantly overshadowed by the power of the

chancellor Chancellor ( la, cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law cou ...

. The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually by

. As a result, many emperors ascended the throne while still children. During minority reigns, the

Empress Dowager Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother) () is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese emperor in the Chinese cultural sphere. The title was a ...

(i.e., the emperor's mother) would usually possess significant political power. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling as

regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...

s on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include the Empress Lü of the

, as well as Empress Dowager Cixi and

Empress Dowager Ci'an Empress Xiaozhenxian (12 August 1837 – 8 April 1881), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Yizhu, the Xianfeng Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1 ...

of the Qing dynasty, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, court officials often seized control. Court

eunuch A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millenni ...

s had a significant role in the power structure, as emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In a few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history was

Wei Zhongxian Wei Zhongxian (1568 – December 12, 1627), born Wei Si (魏四), was a Chinese court eunuch who lived in the late Ming dynasty. As a eunuch he used the name Li Jinzhong (李进忠). He is considered by most historians as the most notorious eunuc ...

during the

. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as

s. The actual area ruled by the Emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless, the political fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained.

Heredity and succession

The title of ''emperor'' was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress () succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes, the emperor, while still living, often designated a

Crown Prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the w ...

(). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death. Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the " Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties. This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han pe ...

dynasties, and for the establishment of

conquest dynasties A conquest dynasty () in the history of China refers to a Chinese dynasty established by non-Han ethnicities that ruled parts or all of China proper, the traditional heartland of the Han people, and whose rulers may or may not fully assimilate i ...

such as the Mongol-led

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...

and Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven". There has been only one lawful female reigning emperor in China, Empress Zetian, who briefly replaced the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

with her own

. Many women, however, did become ''

de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with '' de jure'' ("by l ...

'' leaders, usually as

. Prominent examples include

Empress Dowager Lü An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...

of the

, Empress Dowager Liu of the Sung dynasty and Empress Dowager Cixi of the

Styles, names and forms of address

: ''To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereign'' As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his or her subjects were to show the utmost respect in his or her presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the Imperial

throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the mon ...

, one was expected to kowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his or her given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to use ''Huángdì'' (), or simply ''Ér'' (, "son", for male emperor). The emperor was never to be addressed as "you". Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address him or her as ''Bìxià'' (, lit. the "Bottom of the Steps"), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty"; ''Huángshàng'' (, lit. ''Radiant Highness''); ''Shèngshàng'' (, lit. ''Holy Highness''); or ''Tiānzǐ'' (, lit. "Son of Heaven"). The emperor could also be alluded to indirectly through reference to the imperial dragon symbology. Servants often addressed the emperor as ''Wànsuìyé'' (, lit. ''Lord of Ten Thousand Years''). The emperor referred to himself or herself as ''zhèn'' (), the original Chinese first-person singular arrogated by the

First Emperor Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...

, functioning as an equivalent to the " Royal We", or, self-deprecatingly, ''Guǎrén'' (, the "Morally-Deficient One") in front of his or her subjects. In contrast to the Western convention of referring to a sovereign using a regnal name (e.g. George V) or by a personal name (e.g. Queen Victoria), a governing emperor was to be referred to simply as ''Huángdì Bìxià'' (, ''Majesty, His/Her Majesty the Emperor'') or ''Dāngjīn Huángshàng'' (, ''The Present Emperor Above'') when spoken about in the third person. Under the Qing, the emperor was usually styled ''His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great

Qing Dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years'' although this varied considerably. Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name (). Since the adoption of era name by Emperor Wu of Han and up until the

, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name semi-regularly during his or her reign. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a

temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...

() given after their death. Most emperors were also given a

(, Shìhào), which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shèngzǔ Rén for the

). The passing of an emperor was referred to as ''Jiàbēng'' (, lit. "collapse of the mperialchariot") and an emperor that had just died was referred to as ''Dàxíng Huángdì'' (), literally "the Emperor of the Great Journey."

Consorts and children

The imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress () as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (). In addition, the emperor would typically have several other consorts and

concubine Concubinage is an interpersonal and sexual relationship between a man and a woman in which the couple does not want, or cannot enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar but mutually exclusive. Concubi ...

s (), ranked by importance into a harem, in which the Empress was supreme. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of the harem. During the Qing dynasty, for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress, one ''Huang Guifei'', two ''Guifei'', four ''fei'' and six ''pin'', plus an unlimited number of other consorts and concubines. Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of the emperor, ''i.e.'', the

empress dowager Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother) () is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese emperor in the Chinese cultural sphere. The title was a ...

(), usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs. At times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, she was the ''

'' ruler. The emperor's children, the princes () and princesses (), were often referred to by their order of birth, ''e.g.'', Eldest Prince, Third Princess, etc. The princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, and held equal status with other court officials (). The emperor was always elevated above all others despite any chronological or generational superiority.

Ethnicity

Recent scholarship is wary of applying present-day ethnic categories to historical situations. Most Chinese emperors have been considered members of the Han ethnicity, but there were also many Chinese emperors who were of non-Han ethnic origins. The most successful of these were the Khitans (

Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...

), Jurchens ( Jin dynasty),

(

), and Manchus (

). The orthodox historical view sees these as dynasties as sinicized polities as they adopted

Han culture The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive va ...

, claimed the Mandate of Heaven, and performed the traditional imperial obligations such as annual sacrifices to Heaven (as Tian or Shangdi) for rain and prosperity. The revisionist New Qing History school, however, argues that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex and that elements of these dynasties differed from and altered "native Chinese" traditions concerning imperial rule.Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule
/ref>

Gallery

Han and earlier dynasties

File:Yellowemperor.jpg,

Yellow Emperor The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...

File:EmperorZhuanxu.jpg,

Zhuanxu Zhuanxu (Chinese: trad. , simp. , pinyin ''Zhuānxū''), also known as Gaoyang ( t , s , p ''Gāoyáng''), was a mythological emperor of ancient China. In the traditional account recorded by Sima Qian, Z ...

File:Diku.jpg,

Emperor Ku Kù (, variant graph ), usually referred to as Dì Kù (), also known as Gaoxin or Gāoxīn Shì () or Qūn (), was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor. He went by the name Gaoxin until receiving imperial authority, when he took the name Ku and t ...

File:EmperorYao.jpg, Emperor Yao File:EmperorShun.jpg,

Emperor Shun Emperor Shun () was a legendary leader of ancient China, regarded by some sources as one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors being the last of the Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. Tradition a ...

File:Assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang.jpg,

escaping assassination (3rd c. AD)

''Thirteen Emperors Scroll''

Tang dynasty

File:TangGaozu.jpg, Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566–635) File:TangTaizong.jpg, Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649) File:Gaozong of Tang.jpg, Emperor Gaozong of Tang (628–683) File:Tang Zhongzong2.png, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (656–710) File:Tang Ruizong.png, Emperor Ruizong of Tang (662–716) File:Tang XianZong.jpg,

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756 CE. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. In the early ...

(685–762) File:TangSuzong.jpg, Emperor Suzong of Tang (711–762) File:Tang Daizong.jpg, Emperor Daizong of Tang (727–779) File:Tang Dezong.jpg, Emperor Dezong of Tang (742–805) File:TangXianzong.jpg,

Emperor Xianzong of Tang Emperor Xianzong of Tang (4 March to 1 April 778'' Old Book of Tang'', vol. 14. – 14 February 820; r. 805 – 820), personal name Li Chun, né Li Chun (), was an emperor of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. He was the eldest son of Emperor Shunzo ...

(778–820) File:Muzong.jpg,

Emperor Muzong of Tang Emperor Muzong of Tang (July 26, 795 – February 25, 824), personal name Li Heng, né Li You () (name changed 812), was an emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China. He reigned from 820 to 824. Emperor Muzong was the son of Emperor Xianzong. He w ...

(795–824) File:TangWenzongAlt.jpg, Emperor Wenzong of Tang (809–840) File:Tang Wuzong.jpg, Emperor Wuzong of Tang (814–846) File:Tangxuanzong.jpg,

(810–859) File:TangYizong.jpg, Emperor Yizong of Tang (833–873) File:TangXizong.jpg, Emperor Xizong of Tang (862–888) File:Zhaozong.jpg,

Emperor Zhaozong of Tang Emperor Zhaozong of Tang (March 31, 867 – September 22, 904), né Li Jie, name later changed to Li Min and again to Li Ye, was the penultimate emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned from 888 to 904 (although he was briefly deposed ...

(867–904)

Five dynasties

File:Zhuangzong of Later Tang.jpg, Li Cunxu (Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang)

Northern Song dynasty

File:Song Xuanzu (1).jpg,

Zhao Hongyin Zhao Hongyin () (899-956) was a military general in Imperial China's Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. After his death, his son Zhao Kuangyin founded the Song dynasty in 960. His other son Zhao Kuangyi would also become a Song emperor. F ...

, posthumously made emperor by his son, the first emperor of the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...

File:Song Taizu.jpg, Emperor Taizu of Song (927–976) File:Taizong of Song.jpg, Emperor Taizong of Song (939–997) File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Song Zhenzong.jpg, Emperor Zhenzong of Song (968–1022) File:Renzong.jpg, Emperor Renzong of Song (1010–1063) File:Song Yingzong 1.jpg,

Emperor Yingzong of Song Emperor Yingzong of Song (16 February 1032 – 25 January 1067), personal name Zhao Shu, was the fifth emperor of the Song dynasty of China. His original personal name was Zhao Zongshi but it was changed to "Zhao Shu" in 1062 by imperial dec ...

(1032–1067) File:Shenzong.jpg,

Emperor Shenzong of Song Emperor Shenzong of Song (25 May 1048 – 1 April 1085), personal name Zhao Xu, was the sixth emperor of the Song dynasty of China. His original personal name was Zhao Zhongzhen but he changed it to "Zhao Xu" after his coronation. He reigned ...

(1048–1085) File:Zhezong.jpg, Emperor Zhezong of Song (1077–1100) File:Huizong.jpg,

Emperor Huizong of Song Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Northern Song dynasty of China. He was also a very well-known calligrapher. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the ...

(1082-1135) File:Songqinzong Chinghong.jpg, Emperor Qinzong of Song (1100-1161)

Southern Song dynasty

File:Song Gaozong.png, Emperor Gaozong of Song (1104-1187) File:Xiaozong.jpg, Emperor Xiaozong of Song (1127–1194) File:Guangzong.jpg, Emperor Guangzong of Song (1147–1200) File:Song Ningzong 1.png,

Emperor Ningzong of Song Emperor Ningzong of Song (19 November 1168 – 17 September 1224), personal name Zhao Kuo, was the 13th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fourth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1194 until his death in 1224. He ...

(1168–1224) File:Song Lizong.jpg,

Emperor Lizong of Song Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264. His original name was ...

(1205–1264) File:Duzong.jpg, Emperor Duzong of Song (1240–1274) File:Song Gongdi2.jpg, Emperor Gong of Song (1271–1323) File:ZhaoShiDuanzong.png, Emperor Duanzong (1270–1278) File:Song Modi.jpg, Zhao Bing (1272–1279) File:Refusing the Seat - Anonymous painter during the Song dynasty.jpg,

portrayal of Emperor Wen of Han File:Ma Lin - Emperor Yao.jpg, Song depiction of Emperor Yao

Yuan dynasty

File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg,

(1215-1294) File:YuanEmperorAlbumTemurOljeituPortrait.jpg,

Temür Khan Öljeytü Khan ( Mongolian: Өлзийт; Mongolian script: '; ), born Temür ( mn, Төмөр ; ; October 15, 1265 – February 10, 1307), also known as Emperor Chengzong of Yuan () by his temple name ''Chengzong'', was the second emperor of the ...

(1265-1307) File:YuanEmperorAlbumQaishanKulugPortrait.jpg, Külüg Khan (1281-1311) File:YuanEmperorAlbumAyurbarvadaBuyantuPortrait.jpg, Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1285-1320) File:YuanEmperorAlbumTughTemurPortrait.jpg, Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (1304-1332) File:YuanEmperorAlbumIrinchinbalPortrait.jpg, Rinchinbal Khan (1326-1332)

Ming dynasty

File:A Seated Portrait of Ming Emperor Taizu.jpg, Hongwu Emperor File:Jianwen Emperor.jpg, Jianwen Emperor File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Chengzu.jpg,

Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...

File:MingRenzongPortrait.jpg, Hongxi Emperor File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Xuanzong.jpg, Xuande Emperor File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Yingzong.jpg, Emperor Yingzong of Ming File:Jingtai.jpg, Jingtai Emperor File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Xianzong.jpg,

Chenghua Emperor The Chenghua Emperor (; 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), personal name Zhu Jianshen, was the ninth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, who reigned from 1464 to 1487. His era name " Chenghua" means "accomplished change". Childhood Zhu Jianshen wa ...

File:Hongzhi1.jpg, Hongzhi Emperor File:Ming Wuzong.jpg,

Zhengde Emperor The Zhengde Emperor (; 26 October 149120 April 1521) was the 11th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1505 to 1521. Born Zhu Houzhao, he was the Hongzhi Emperor's eldest son. Zhu Houzhao took the throne at only 14 with the era name Z ...

File:Jiajing.jpg, Jiajing Emperor File:MingMuzong1.jpg, Longqing Emperor File:Ming_Shenzong_(1).jpg, Wanli Emperor File:Ming_Guangzong.jpg, Taichang Emperor File:TianqiZhe.jpg, Tianqi Emperor File:Ming Chongzhen.jpg,

Chongzhen Emperor The Chongzhen Emperor (; 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644), personal name Zhu Youjian (), courtesy name Deyue (),Wang Yuan (王源)，''Ju ye tang wen ji'' (《居業堂文集》), vol. 19. "聞之張景蔚親見烈皇帝神主題御諱字德� ...

Qing dynasty

File:清佚名《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg, Nurhaci File:清佚名《清太宗崇德皇帝朝服像》.jpg, Hong Taiji File:清佚名《清世祖顺治皇帝朝服像》.jpg, Shunzhi Emperor File:Portrait of the Kangxi Emperor in Court Dress.jpg,

File:Portrait of the Yongzheng Emperor in Court Dress.jpg, Yongzheng Emperor File:乾隆皇帝老年肖像.jpg,

Qianlong Emperor The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, born Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1735 ...

File:清佚名《清仁宗嘉庆皇帝朝服像》.jpg, Jiaqing Emperor File:003-The Imperial Portrait of a Chinese Emperor called "Daoguang".JPG, Daoguang Emperor File:《咸丰皇帝朝服像》.jpg, Xianfeng Emperor File:清佚名《清穆宗同治皇帝朝服像》.jpg,

Tongzhi Emperor The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the Aisin Gioro clan, was the ninth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted ...

File:Emperor_Guangxu.jpg, Guangxu Emperor File:Xuantong.jpg,

Notes

References

External links

PRC Qin Shi Huang site
{{DEFAULTSORT:Emperor Of China Huangdi Chinese monarchs Deified Chinese people Government of Imperial China Chinese royal titles

Origin and history

End of the imperial system

Number of emperors

Power

Heredity and succession

Styles, names and forms of address

Consorts and children

Ethnicity

Gallery

Han and earlier dynasties

''Thirteen Emperors Scroll''

Tang dynasty

Five dynasties

Northern Song dynasty

Southern Song dynasty

Yuan dynasty

Ming dynasty

Qing dynasty

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links