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The Eburones (
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
: ) were a Gallic- Germanic tribe dwelling in the northeast of
Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
, in what is now the southern Netherlands, eastern Belgium and the German
Rhineland The Rhineland (german: Rheinland; french: Rhénanie; nl, Rijnland; ksh, Rhingland; Latinised name: ''Rhenania'') is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly its middle section. Term Historically, the Rhinelands ...
, in the period immediately preceding the Roman conquest of the region. Though living in Gaul, they were also described as being both Belgae and Germani (for a discussion of these terms, see below). The Eburones played a major role in
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
's account of his "Gallic Wars", as the most important tribe within the ''
Germani cisrhenani The ''Germani cisrhenani'' (Latin '' cis- rhenanus'' "on this side of the Rhine", referring to the Roman or western side), or "Left bank ''Germani''", were a group of Germanic peoples who lived west of the Lower Rhine at the time of the Gallic W ...
'' group of tribes — ''Germani'' living west of the Rhine amongst the Belgae. Caesar claimed that the name of the Eburones was wiped out after their failed revolt against his forces during the Gallic Wars, and that the tribe was largely annihilated. Whether any significant part of the population lived on in the area as Tungri, the tribal name found here later, is uncertain but considered likely.


Name


Attestations

They are mentioned as ''Eburones'' by
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
(mid-1st c. BC) and Orosius (early 5th c. AD), as ''Eboúrōnes'' (Ἐβούρωνες) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), as ''Ebourōnoí'' (Ἐβουρωνοί) by
Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
(3rd c. AD)., s.v. ''Eburones''.


Etymology

Most scholars derive the ethnonym ''Eburones'' from the
Gaulish Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switze ...
word for ' yew-tree', ''eburos'', itself stemming from
Proto-Celtic Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. Proto-Celti ...
''*eburos'' ('yew'; cf. OIr. ''ibar'' 'yew', MBret. ''euor'' ' alder buck-thorn', MW. ''efwr'' ' cow parsnip, hog-weed'). This interpretation is supported by the story, as told by
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
, of how the Eburonean king Catuvolcus killed himself with poisonous yew in a ritualistic suicide. An alternative Germanic etymology from *''eburaz'' ('boar'; cf. ON ''jofurr'', or Ger. ''Eber'') has also been proposed. Xavier Delamarre points out that coins of the ''Aulerci
Eburovices The Eburovīcēs or Aulercī Eburovīcēs (Gaulish: *''Eburouīcēs/Eburowīcēs'', 'those who vanquish by the yew') were a Gallic tribe dwelling in the modern Eure department during the Iron Age and the Roman period. They were part of the Aule ...
'', in
Normandy Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...
, show the head of a wild boar, and argues that there might have been, further northeast, a "semantic contamination, in the mixed Germano-Celtic Rhenish areas, of the Gaulish ''eburos'' by the Germanic quasi-homonym ''*eburaz''."
Joseph Vendryes Joseph Vendryes or Vendryès (; 13 January 1875, Paris – 30 January 1960) was a French Celtic linguist. After studying with Antoine Meillet, he was chairman of Celtic languages and literature at the École Pratique des Hautes Études. He found ...
saw a Celtic 'boar-god' ''*epro'' behind the name of the yew, and it has been noted that the boar and the yew are both associated with concepts of lordship and longevity in the Germanic and—to a lesser extent—Celtic traditions, which may provided a reason for such a "contamination". The second part of the ethnonym, ''-ones'', is commonly found in both Celtic (
Lingones The Lingones (Gaulish: 'the jumpers') were a Gallic tribe of the Iron Age and Roman periods. They dwelled in the region surrounding the present-day city of Langres, between the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica. Name Attes ...
, Senones, etc.) and Germanic (
Ingvaeones The Ingaevones were a West Germanic cultural group living in the Northern Germania along the North Sea coast in the areas of Jutland, Holstein, and Frisia in classical antiquity. Tribes in this area included the Angles, Frisii, Chauci, Saxons, ...
, Semnones, etc.) tribal names in the Roman era.
Maurits Gysseling Maurits Gysseling (Oudenburg, 7 September 1919 – Ghent, 24 November 1997) was an influential Belgian researcher into historical linguistics and paleography. He was especially well known for his editions and studies of old texts relevant to the h ...
has suggested that place names such as Averbode and Avernas ( Hannut) might be derived from the Eburones.


Geography


Territory

The Eburones lived in an area broadly situated between the
Ardennes and Eifel {{Infobox mountain range , name=Ardennes and Eifel , photo=Weiswampach.jpg , photo_caption=A view at the Luxembourg commune of Weiswampach , country_type= Countries , country= {{enum, Belgium (east), France (north), Germany (west), Luxembourg ...
region in the south, and the Rhine-Meuse delta in the north. Their territory lay east of the
Atuatuci The Atuatuci (or Aduatuci) were a Gauls, Gallic-Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe, dwelling in the eastern part of modern-day Belgium during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age. They fought the Roman armies of Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars (58– ...
(themselves east of the
Nervii The Nervii were one of the most powerful Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards into French Hainault. ...
), south of the Menapii, and north of the Segni and
Condrusi The Condrusi were an ancient Belgic- Germanic tribe dwelling in what is now eastern Belgium during the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC) and the Roman period. Their ethnic identity remains uncertain. Caesar described them as part of the Germani Cisrhenani ...
(themselves north of the
Treveri The Trēverī ( Gaulish: *''Trēueroi'') were a Celtic tribe of the Belgae group who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle from around 150 BCE, if not earlier, until their displacement by the Franks. Their domain lay within the southern fri ...
). To the east, the
Sugambri The Sicambri, also known as the Sugambri or Sicambrians, were a Germanic people who during Roman times lived on the east bank of the river Rhine, in what is now Germany, near the border with the Netherlands. They were first reported by Julius Ca ...
and
Ubii 350px, The Ubii around AD 30 The Ubii were a Germanic tribe first encountered dwelling on the east bank of the Rhine in the time of Julius Caesar, who formed an alliance with them in 55 BC in order to launch attacks across the river. They were ...
were their neighbours on the opposite bank of the Rhine. When the Germanic Tencteri and Usipetes crossed the
Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , so ...
from Germania in 55 BC, they first fell on the Menapii and advanced into the territories of the Eburones and Condrusi, who were both "under the protection of" the
Treveri The Trēverī ( Gaulish: *''Trēueroi'') were a Celtic tribe of the Belgae group who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle from around 150 BCE, if not earlier, until their displacement by the Franks. Their domain lay within the southern fri ...
to the south.Caesar, ''BG''
IV.5–6
/ref> Map showing the Maas (dark green) between the Rhine_ ),__Surselva,__Graubünden,__Switzerland ,__source1_coordinates=_ ,__source1_elevation__=_ ,__source2____________=__Rein_Posteriur/Hinterrhein_ ,__source2_location___=__Paradies_Glacier,__Graubünden,__Switzerland ,__source2_coordinates=_ ,__so_...
_(cyan)_with_Tongeren_and_other_cities_on_the_Maas..html" ;"title="Scheldt (light blue) and the
Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , so ...
(cyan) with Tongeren and other cities on the Maas.">305x305pxAccording to a description given by
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
(mid-1st century BC), the greatest part of the Eburones lived between the
Meuse The Meuse ( , , , ; wa, Moûze ) or Maas ( , ; li, Maos or ) is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a t ...
and
Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , so ...
rivers. However, Caesar also notes that their land bordered on that of the coastal Menapii in the north, and that those among the Eburones "who were nearest the ocean" managed to hide in islands after their defeat against the Romans. This apparent geographical situation, near both the Condroz and the Rhine–Meuse delta, has suggested to many scholars that a significant part of their territory stretched west of the Meuse rather than between the Meuse and the Rhine. Heinrichs (2008) contends that a territory stretching from the Rhine to the
North Sea The North Sea lies between Great Britain, Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. An epeiric sea, epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the English Channel in the south and the ...
would be "unrealistically large", especially since they were portrayed as clients of the neighbouring
Atuatuci The Atuatuci (or Aduatuci) were a Gauls, Gallic-Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe, dwelling in the eastern part of modern-day Belgium during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age. They fought the Roman armies of Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars (58– ...
until 57 BC. As archaeological findings suggest that the Eburonean territory did not extend substantially east of the Meuse in the direction of the Rhine, Heinrichs argues that the Eburones were rather principally centred in an area located west of the Meuse. They have been identified by Belgian archaeologists with a material culture in northern
Limburg Limburg or Limbourg may refer to: Regions * Limburg (Belgium), a province since 1839 in the Flanders region of Belgium * Limburg (Netherlands), a province since 1839 in the south of the Netherlands * Diocese of Limburg, Roman Catholic Diocese in ...
and the Campine. According to Wightman, "this would certainly account for the
propinquity In social psychology, propinquity (; from Latin ''propinquitas'', "nearness") is one of the main factors leading to interpersonal attraction. It refers to the physical or psychological proximity between people. Propinquity can mean physical prox ...
of Eburones and Menapii mentioned by Caesar; the distribution of war-time
stater The stater (; grc, , , statḗr, weight) was an ancient coin used in various regions of Greece. The term is also used for similar coins, imitating Greek staters, minted elsewhere in ancient Europe. History The stater, as a Greek silver curre ...
s attributed to the Eburones (a mixture of transrhenine and Treveran elements) also corresponds with this group." Based on the concentrations of coins, Roymans (2004) has proposed to also regard the eastern half of the Rhine–Meuse delta as part of the Eburonean polity. The area was later inhabited by the Batavians who likely assimilated the local Eburones. Another part of the Eburones also fled to a remote area of the Ardennes, where Ambiorix himself is said to have gone with some cavalry, and Caesar portrays the
Scheldt The Scheldt (french: Escaut ; nl, Schelde ) is a river that flows through northern France, western Belgium, and the southwestern part of the Netherlands, with its mouth at the North Sea. Its name is derived from an adjective corresponding to ...
river (''Scaldis'') as flowing into the Meuse, apparently confusing the river with the Sambre. This has led scholars to argue that Caesar or later copyists sometimes confused river names or used them differently than later writers. Some scholars have argued for a location in the northern Eifel region, but this is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the
Condrusi The Condrusi were an ancient Belgic- Germanic tribe dwelling in what is now eastern Belgium during the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC) and the Roman period. Their ethnic identity remains uncertain. Caesar described them as part of the Germani Cisrhenani ...
, who gave their name to the Condroz region, are described by Caesar as dwelling between the Treveri and Eburones. Wightman further notes that "no cultural groupings can be isolated to suit the Eburones in the north Eifel".


Settlements

Caesar describes Atuatuca as a '' castellum'' located in the middle of the Eburone territory, which has sometimes been taken to imply that it was between the
Meuse The Meuse ( , , , ; wa, Moûze ) or Maas ( , ; li, Maos or ) is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a t ...
and the
Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , so ...
rivers where, in another passage, Caesar locates the greatest part of the Eburonean population. The exact location the stronghold remains uncertain, but it is almost certainly not the same as the later Atuatuca Tungrorum, which seems to have been erected ''
ex-nihilo (Latin for "creation out of nothing") is the doctrine that matter is not eternal but had to be created by some divine creative act. It is a theistic answer to the question of how the universe comes to exist. It is in contrast to ''Ex nihilo ni ...
'' as a Roman military base ca. 10 BC. According to Wightman (1985), "changes which took place after Caesar, involving new folk from across the Rhine and reorganization of existing peoples, make localization difficult." Atuatuca played an important role in the revolt of Ambiorix against Rome in the winter of 54–53 BC, and in Caesar's subsequent attempts to annihilate the tribe in 53 and 51 BC. Vanvinckenroye (2001) has suggested that the Eburones did not have their own strongholds and used instead the fortress of the neighbouring
Atuatuci The Atuatuci (or Aduatuci) were a Gauls, Gallic-Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe, dwelling in the eastern part of modern-day Belgium during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age. They fought the Roman armies of Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars (58– ...
to house troops since they were tributary to them, which would explain the name.


History


Gallic Wars


Battle of the Sabis (57 BC)

Caesar's forces clashed with an alliance of Belgic tribes in 57 BC in the
Battle of the Sabis The Battle of the Sabis, also (arguably erroneously) known as the Battle of the Sambre or the Battle against the Nervians (or Nervii), was fought in 57 BC near modern Saulzoir in Northern France, between Caesar's legions and an association of B ...
. Before that battle, information from the Remi, a tribe allied with Rome, stated that the Germani (the Condrusi, the Eburones, the Caeraesi, and the Paemani) had collectively promised, they thought, about 40,000 men. These were to join 60,000
Bellovaci The Bellovaci (Gaulish: ''Bellouacoi'') were a Belgic tribe dwelling in the modern Picardy region, near the present-day city of Beauvais, during the Iron Age and the Roman period. After they were defeated by Caesar in 57 BC, they gave lukewarm s ...
, 50,000 Suessiones, 50,000
Nervii The Nervii were one of the most powerful Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards into French Hainault. ...
, 15,000 Atrebates, 10,000
Ambiani The Ambiani (Gaulish: ''Ambiāni'', 'those around') were a Belgic coastal tribe dwelling in the modern Picardy region during the Iron Age and Roman periods. They settled in the region between the 4th century and the second part of the 2nd centur ...
, 25,000
Morini The Morini (Gaulish: "sea folk, sailors") were a Belgic coastal tribe dwelling in the modern Pas de Calais region, around present-day Boulogne-sur-Mer, during the Iron Age and the Roman period. Name They are mentioned as ''Morini'' by Caesar ( ...
, 9,000 Menapii, 10,000 Caleti, 10,000 Velocasses, 10,000
Viromandui The Viromanduī or Veromanduī (Gaulish: *''Uiromanduoi'') were a Belgic tribe dwelling in the modern Vermandois region (Picardy) during the Iron Age and Roman periods. During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), they belonged to the Belgic coalition of ...
, and 19,000 Aduatuci. The whole force was led by Galba, king of the Suessiones.Caesar, ''BG''
II.4
/ref> However, the alliance did not work. The Suessiones and Bellovaci surrendered after the Romans defended the Remi and then moved towards their lands. And after this the Ambiani offered no further resistance and the Nervii, along with the Atrebates and Viromandui, formed the most important force on the day of the battle. The Eburones are not mentioned specifically in the description of the battle itself, but after the defeat the Eburones became important as one of the tribes continuing to resist Roman overlordship.


Siege of Atuatuca (54 BC)

In 54 BC, Caesar's forces were still in Belgic territory, having just returned from their second expedition to Britain, and needed to be wintered. Crops had not been good, due to a drought, and this imposition upon the communities led to new conflict. This insurrection started only 15 days after a legion and five cohorts (one and a half legions) under the command of Caesar's legates,
Quintus Titurius Sabinus Quintus Titurius Sabinus was one of Caesar's legates during the Gallic Wars. He is first mentioned in Caesar's campaign against the Remi, in 57 BC. In 56 BC, he was sent by Caesar with three legions against the Venelli, Curiosolitae, and Lexovi ...
and
Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta (died 54 BC) was an officer in the Gallic army of Gaius Julius Caesar. The little we know of Cotta is found in Book V of Caesar's ''De Bello Gallico''. In 54 BC, when Caesar returned to Gaul from his second expedition ...
arrived in their winter quarters in the country of the Eburones. The Eburones, encouraged by messages from the Treveran king
Indutiomarus Indutiomarus (died 53 BC) was a leading aristocrat of the Treveri (the people of the area around present-day Trier) at the time of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul. He was the head of the anti-Roman party and the political rival of his pro-Roman s ...
, and headed by their two kings, Ambiorix and Cativolcus, attacked the Roman camp; and after inducing the Romans to leave their stronghold on the promise of a safe passage, massacred nearly all of them (approximately 6000 men). Encouraged by this victory, Ambiorix rode personally first to the Aduatuci and then to the Nervi, arguing for a new attack on the Romans wintering in Nervian territory under the command by Quintus Tullius Cicero, brother of the famous orator.Caesar, ''BG''
V.38
/ref> The Nervii agreed and summoned forces quickly from several tribes under their government, Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleumoxii, and Geiduni. Caesar reported that this was thwarted by his timely intervention, and the Belgic allies dispersed, Caesar "fearing to pursue them very far, because woods and morasses intervened, and also ecausehe saw that they suffered no small loss in abandoning their position". In the meantime
Labienus Titus Labienus (c. 10017 March 45 BC) was a high-ranking military officer in the late Roman Republic. He served as tribune of the Plebs in 63 BC. Although mostly remembered as one of Julius Caesar's best lieutenants in Gaul, mentioned freq ...
, one of Caesar's most trusted generals, was wintering in the territory of the Treveri, and also came under threat when news of the Eburones rebellion spread. Eventually, he killed the king of the Treveri, Indutiomarus. "This affair having been known, all the forces of the Eburones and the Nervii which had assembled, depart; and for a short time after this action, Caesar was less harassed in the government of Gaul." In the following year Caesar entered the country of the Eburones, and Ambiorix fled before him. Cativolcus poisoned himself with a concoction from a yew tree.Caesar, ''BG''
VI.31
/ref> The country of the Eburones was difficult for the Romans, being woody and swampy in parts. Caesar invited the neighboring people to come and plunder the Eburones, "in order that the life of the Gauls might be hazarded in the woods rather than the legionary soldiers; at the same time, in order that a large force being drawn around them, the race and name of that state may be annihilated for such a crime".Caesar, ''BG''
VI.34
/ref> The
Sicambri The Sicambri, also known as the Sugambri or Sicambrians, were a Germanic people who during Roman times lived on the east bank of the river Rhine, in what is now Germany, near the border with the Netherlands. They were first reported by Julius C ...
, from east of the Rhine, were one of the main raiders. While Caesar was ravaging the country of the Eburones, he left Quintus Tullius Cicero with a legion to protect the baggage and stores, at a place called Aduatuca, which he tells us, though he had not mentioned the name of the place before, was the place where Sabinus and Cotta had been killed. The plan to take advantage of the Sicambri backfired when the Eburones explained to the Sicambri that the Roman supplies and booty, not the refugees, were the most attractive target for plundering.


Genocide (53–51 BC)

Caesar reports that he burnt every village and building that he could find in the territory of the Eburones, drove off all the cattle, and his men and beasts consumed all the corn that the weather of the autumnal season did not destroy. He left those who had hid themselves, if there were any, with the hope that they would all die of hunger in the winter. Caesar says that he wanted to annihilate the Eburones and their name, and indeed we hear no more of the Eburones. Their country was soon occupied by a Germanic tribe with a different name, the Tungri. However, the report of Tacitus that the Tungri were the original "''Germani''" that came earliest over the Rhine, and the way this matches the description by Caesar of the Eburones and their neighbours, leads to the possibility that they survived under a new name. Chirot & Edwards describe the conquest as a genocide, but provide no analysis of the particulars. On the other hand, Heinrichs (2008) argues that the
genocide Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Lat ...
of the Eburones in 53 BC could not have happened as it is claimed by
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
. If the systematic destruction of infrastructures by the Roman forces was intended to prevent the local people from regaining power, physical extermination proved to be impractical. The available areas of refuge hardly accessible to the Roman legions were numerous: the low mountain range of the Ardennes, the swamps and wastelands towards the Menapii, the coastal islands, etc. Moreover, Caesar's second attempt to annihilate the tribe two years later demonstrates that the community survived, and even probably regenerated in such a way that further actions were apparently needed. According to Roymans (2004), their disappearance from the political map may have resulted from "a policy of ''
damnatio memoriae is a modern Latin phrase meaning "condemnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts. Depending on the extent, it can be a case of historical negationism. There are and have been many routes to , includi ...
'' on the part of the Roman authorities, in combination with the confiscation of Eburonean territory". A great part of their gold fell into Roman hands during repeated Roman raids on the Eburones in 53–51 BC, and was then melted down and carried off.


Roman period

After the Gallic Wars, the new tribal entities that settled in the Lower Rhine region with Roman support were on territories previously occupied by the Eburones. Based on a comment by
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
, who identifies the Tungri as descendants of the first group of Germani to cross the Rhine and drive away the Gauls, Nouwen (1997) has proposed that the Tungri emerged from the former Eburonean confederation. The Batavi, who settled in the Rhine–Meuse delta from the late 1st century BC, probably also merged with remnant of older indigenous Eburonean groups that had survived in the area. Under the Romans, one of the tribes associated with the Tungri, and apparently living in the north of their area, in the modern Campine, were the Toxandrians. Like the Tungri, they were never mentioned by Caesar. Like the Condrusi (whom Caesar had mentioned, and who continued to exist under Roman rule), the Texuandri or Toxandrians were recognized as a distinct grouping for the administrative purpose of mustering troops. The etymology of this name is uncertain, but it has been proposed that it may be a translation of the original Gaulish name of the Eburones, referring to the yew tree (''
taxus ''Taxus'' is a genus of coniferous trees or shrubs known as yews in the family Taxaceae. They are relatively slow-growing and can be very long-lived, and reach heights of , with trunk girth averaging . They have reddish bark, lanceolate, flat ...
'' in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
).


Culture

It is clear that the Belgic tribes of Gaul were culturally influenced by both Gaulish and Germanic neighbours, but the details, for example which languages they spoke, remain uncertain. It is also probable that the Eburones contained both Gallic and Germanic elements.


Classical sources

Although the term Germanic has a linguistic definition today, Roman authors such as Caesar and Tacitus did not clearly divide the Celts from what they called the Germans based on languages. On the contrary, both authors tended to emphasize, partly for political reasons, the differences in terms of the levels of civilization which had been attained, with Germanic peoples being wilder and less civilized peoples, requiring military and political considerations. Despite being regarded as Belgae, a type of
Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
says that the
Condrusi The Condrusi were an ancient Belgic- Germanic tribe dwelling in what is now eastern Belgium during the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC) and the Roman period. Their ethnic identity remains uncertain. Caesar described them as part of the Germani Cisrhenani ...
, Eburones, Caeraesi,
Paemani The Paemani (also Poemani or Caemani) were a small Belgae, Belgic-Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe dwelling in Gallia Belgica during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age. Their ethnic identity remains uncertain. Caesar described them as part of the Germa ...
, and Segni were called by the collective name of '' Germani'' and had settled there some time ago, having come from the opposite bank of the Rhine. The Eburones are therefore amongst the so-called ''
Germani cisrhenani The ''Germani cisrhenani'' (Latin '' cis- rhenanus'' "on this side of the Rhine", referring to the Roman or western side), or "Left bank ''Germani''", were a group of Germanic peoples who lived west of the Lower Rhine at the time of the Gallic W ...
'' 'Germans on this side of the Rhine', i.e.
Germanic peoples The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and e ...
who lived south and west of the Rhine and may have been distinct from the Belgae.
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
later wrote that it was in this very region that the term ''Germani'' started to be used, even though he mentions a tribe Caesar did not mention, the Tungri.
The name Germany, on the other hand, they say, is modern and newly introduced, from the fact that the tribes which first crossed the Rhine and drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungrians, were then called Germans 'Germani'' Thus what was the name of a tribe, and not of a race, gradually prevailed, until all called themselves by this self-invented name of Germans, which the conquerors had first employed to inspire terror.
This is often interpreted as implying that the Tungri, a name later used to refer to all the tribes of this area, were descendants of several tribes including the ones Caesar said were called ''Germani'' collectively. The name may even be an artificial name meaning "the sworn ones" or confederates.


Language

There are clues which are sometimes taken to indicate that the local peoples in former Eburonic territories spoke or adopted
Gaulish Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switze ...
, or some form of it. One of the basic influences on the pronunciation of Dutch is a Gallo-Romance accent. This means that in the
Gallo-Roman period Roman Gaul refers to GaulThe territory of Gaul roughly corresponds to modern-day France, Belgium and Luxembourg, and adjacient parts of the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany. under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century ...
, when the Eburones had officially ceased to exist, the Latin which was then spoken was strongly influenced by a Gaulish substrate. On the other hand, studies of placenames such as those of
Maurits Gysseling Maurits Gysseling (Oudenburg, 7 September 1919 – Ghent, 24 November 1997) was an influential Belgian researcher into historical linguistics and paleography. He was especially well known for his editions and studies of old texts relevant to the h ...
, have been argued to show evidence of the very early presence of early Germanic languages throughout the area north of the Ardennes. The sound changes described by "
Grimm's Law Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift) is a set of sound laws describing the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. First systematically put forward by Jacob Gr ...
" appear to have affected names with older forms, apparently already in the 2nd century BC. It has been argued by some scholars that the older language of the area, though apparently
Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...
, was not Celtic (see
Nordwestblock The Nordwestblock (German, "Northwest Block") is a hypothetical Northwestern European cultural region that some scholars propose as a prehistoric culture in the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, northern France, and northwestern Germany, in an a ...
) and therefore that Celtic, though influential amongst the elite, might never have been the language of the area where the Eburones lived.


Personal names

It is generally accepted that the personal names of Catuvolcus and Ambiorix, the Eburonean kings who opposed
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
during the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), are of Celtic origin. The former is most likely the
Gaulish Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switze ...
compound ''catu-uolcus'' ('war-falcon'), formed with the root ''catu-'' ('combat') attached to the word ''uolcos'' ('falcon, hawk'). The Eburonean name has an exact parallel in the Welsh ''cadwalch'' ('hero, champion, warrior'). It has been noted that the use of the
Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...
root ''*katu-'' ('fight') as a
compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struc ...
in personal names is common to both Gallic and Germanic traditions (e.g., '' Catu-rīx'' and ''Haðu-rīh'', which are
cognates In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical eff ...
). The name 'Ambiorix' is generally analyzed as the Gaulish prefix ''ambio-'' attached to the word ''rix'' ('king'), and could be interpreted as 'king of the surroundings' or 'king protector'.


Material culture

The material culture of the region has been found by archaeologists to be highly Celtised, clearly in contact with the Celts of central Gaul, though far less rich in terms of Mediterranean luxury goods. They were not so strongly linked to the east of the Rhine. This would at the very least seem to suggest that at least the upper echelons were Celtic or had adopted a Celtic language and culture. A further complication is that the population of the Eburones may have been made up of different components. As mentioned above, archaeological evidence implies continuity going back to Urnfield times, but with signs that militarized elites had moved in more than once, bringing forms of the Celtic-associated cultures known as Hallstatt and later La Tène. No clear archaeological evidence has been found to confirm Caesar's account that the Eburones came specifically from over the Rhine. However, these Celtic cultures were also present there, and in the period when Caesar supposes that they arrived, the peoples immediately over the Rhine were most likely not speakers of a Germanic language.


Political organization

The Eburones were probably a loose federation of several small clans, which may explain the dual kingship institution. Their political system, similar to that of the
Sugambri The Sicambri, also known as the Sugambri or Sicambrians, were a Germanic people who during Roman times lived on the east bank of the river Rhine, in what is now Germany, near the border with the Netherlands. They were first reported by Julius Ca ...
, included several kings ruling on different territories. The distribution of Eburonean
triskeles A triskelion or triskeles is an ancient Motif (visual arts), motif consisting of a triple spiral exhibiting rotational symmetry. The spiral design can be based on interlocking Archimedean spirals, or represent three bent human legs. It is fo ...
staters also points to a polycentric political structures with several cores of influence. According to Roymans, "the fact that the Eburones and, somewhat later, the Sugambri were in a position to triumph over Roman armies attests to the ability of groups and individuals in these societies to summon considerable strength, at least in periods of crisis." The formation of comitati was probably common during the Late Iron Age, as evidenced by the retinue of equites that escorted Ambiorix as he fled the Roman troops, and by similar practices attested in neighbouring tribes. At the time of the Roman conquest, the Eburones were clients of the
Treveri The Trēverī ( Gaulish: *''Trēueroi'') were a Celtic tribe of the Belgae group who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle from around 150 BCE, if not earlier, until their displacement by the Franks. Their domain lay within the southern fri ...
, and
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
mentions that the Eburonean king Ambiorix began his revolt against the Romans at the insistence of the Treveri. They were also paying tribute to the Atuatuci, who were holding Eburonean hostages in chains and slavery, including the son and nephew of the Eburone king Ambiorix. It was with these two tribes that the Eburones quickly formed a military alliance against Caesar's forces. Caesar also reports that, during the conflict, the Eburones had some sort of alliance, organized via their allies the Treveri, with the Germanic tribes over the
Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , so ...
.''BG'
VI.5
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See also

*
Celtici ] The Celtici (in Portuguese language, Portuguese, Spanish, and Galician languages, ) were a Celtic tribe or group of tribes of the Iberian peninsula, inhabiting three definite areas: in what today are the regions of Alentejo and the Algarve i ...
* Germani * Germani (Oretania) * List of Celtic tribes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Primary sources

* *


Further reading

*Roymans, Nico, and Wim Dijkman. "The Gold and Silver Hoard of Maastricht-Amby." In Late Iron Age Gold Hoards from the Low Countries and the Caesarian Conquest of Northern Gaul, edited by Roymans Nico, Creemers Guido, and Scheers Simone, 171-214. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012. doi:10.2307/j.ctt46n0nm.10.


External links


A website on the Eburones
(largely in German)
"Ancient Celtic coin cache found in Netherlands"
NBC News NBC News is the news division of the American broadcast television network NBC. The division operates under NBCUniversal Television and Streaming, a division of NBCUniversal, which is, in turn, a subsidiary of Comcast. The news division's var ...
13 November 2008
Archived
13 April 2021. {{Germanic peoples Historical Celtic peoples Early Germanic peoples Belgae Gauls Tribes involved in the Gallic Wars Tribes of pre-Roman Gaul Genocides in Europe