A characteristic of

Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...

's style is the use of

epithet An epithet (, ), also a byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in Alfred the Great, Suleima ...

s, as in "rosy-fingered" Dawn or "swift-footed"

Achilles In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus () was a hero of the Trojan War who was known as being the greatest of all the Greek warriors. The central character in Homer's ''Iliad'', he was the son of the Nereids, Nereid Thetis and Peleus, ...

. Epithets are used because of the constraints of the dactylic hexameter (i.e., it is convenient to have a stockpile of metrically fitting phrases to add to a name) and because of the oral transmission of the poems; they are mnemonic aids to the singer and the audience alike. Formulae in

epic poetry In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard t ...

from various

Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...

traditions may be traced to a common tradition. For example, the phrase for "everlasting glory" or "undying fame" can be found in the

Homeric Greek Homeric Greek is the form of the Greek language that was used in the ''Iliad'', ''Odyssey'', and ''Homeric Hymns''. It is a literary dialect of Ancient Greek consisting mainly of an archaic form of Ionic, with some Aeolic forms, a few from Ar ...

as / and

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit, also simply referred as the Vedic language, is the most ancient known precursor to Sanskrit, a language in the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. It is atteste ...

as / . These two phrases were, in terms of historical linguistics, equivalent in

phonology Phonology (formerly also phonemics or phonematics: "phonemics ''n.'' 'obsolescent''1. Any procedure for identifying the phonemes of a language from a corpus of data. 2. (formerly also phonematics) A former synonym for phonology, often pre ...

, accentuation, and quantity (syllable length). In other words, they descend from a fragment of poetic diction (reconstructable as

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...

) which was handed down in parallel over many centuries, in continually diverging forms, by generations of singers whose ultimate ancestors shared an archetypal repertoire of poetic formulae and narrative themes. In contrast to the more general term 'epithet' (), which is used in poetic contexts, for the

ancient Greek religion Religious practices in ancient Greece encompassed a collection of beliefs, rituals, and Greek mythology, mythology, in the form of both popular public religion and Cult (religious practice), cult practices. The application of the modern concept ...

, the

epiclesis The epiclesis (also spelled epiklesis; from , ) refers to the invocation of one or several gods. In ancient Greek religion, the epiclesis was the epithet used as the surname given to a deity in religious contexts. The term was borrowed into the Ch ...

( (; literally 'calling upon')) was used as the surname that was associated with a deity during religious invocations. Epithets alter the meaning of each noun to which they are attached. They specify the existential nature of a noun; that is to say, Achilles is not called "swift-footed" only when he runs; it is a marker of a quality that does not change. Special epithets, such as

patronymics A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (more specifically an avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor. It is the male equivalent of a matronymic. Patronymics are used, ...

, are used exclusively for particular subjects and distinguish them from others, while generic epithets are used of many subjects and speak less to their individual characters. In these examples, the epithet can be contradictory to the present state of the subject: in ''

Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...

'' VI.74, for instance,

Nausicaa Nausicaa (; , or , ), also spelled Nausicaä or Nausikaa, is a character in Homer's ''Odyssey''. She is the daughter of King Alcinous and Arete (mythology), Queen Arete of Scheria, Phaeacia. Her name means "burner of ships" ( 'ship'; 'to burn' ...

takes her "radiant clothing", , to be washed; since it is dirty, it is unlikely to be radiant.Parry 1971: 121

List

General

General epithets are applied to common nouns, or the people or things that fall under such a noun. For example, Odysseus, Achilles, and Agamemnon are all referred to as "brilliant" (a general epithet for men) at various points. *men **shining, divine (, ) **born from Zeus (, ) **god-like (, ; , ) **high-hearted **brilliant (''dios'') *leaders **lord of men (, ) *women (incl. goddesses) **white-armed (, ) **lovely-haired (, ) **ox eyed (, ) *goddesses **of the golden distaff with (, ) *day **the day of return (, — ''

nostalgia Nostalgia is a sentimentality for the past, typically for a period or place with happy personal associations. The word ''nostalgia'' is a neoclassical compound derived from Greek language, Greek, consisting of (''nóstos''), a Homeric word me ...

'' also comes from ) *sea **loud-roaring () **grey **wine-colored, wine-dark () *ships **well-balanced **swift **black *lions **eating raw flesh () **mountain-bred () **fiery ()

Nations

*Albanes **swift (, ) **sporting long hair (, ) * Achaeans **hairy-headed (, ) **bronzed-armored (, ) **strong-greaved (, ) **glancing-eyed (, ) **with hollow ships * Trojans **tamers of horses (, ) * Phaeacians **oar-loving

Individuals

**son of Peleus ( ) **swift-footed ( ; ; ) **breaking through men ( ) **lion-hearted ( ) **like to the gods ( ) **shepherd of the people ( ) *

Aeneas In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas ( , ; from ) was a Troy, Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus (mythology), Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy ...

**son of Anchises ( ) **counselor of the Trojans ( ) **lord of the Trojans ( ) **great-hearted ( ) **great-minded ( ) **king of men ( ) **great ( ) *

Agamemnon In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; ''Agamémnōn'') was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Achaeans (Homer), Achaeans during the Trojan War. He was the son (or grandson) of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the husband of C ...

**breaker of horses, horse-tamer ( ) **son of Atreus ( : also transliterated ) **wide-ruling lord ( ) **the lord marshal **powerful **shepherd of the people ( ) **lord of men ( ) * Aias/Ajax **Son of Telamon ( ) **swift **gigantic ( ) ***the mighty *

Alcinous In Greek mythology, Alcinous (also Alcinoüs; ; ''Alkínoos'' ) was a son of Nausithous and brother of Rhexenor. After the latter's death, he married his brother's daughter Arete who bore him Nausicaa, Halius, Clytoneus and Laodamas. In ...

**the hallowed prince **great * Andromache **daughter of Eetion ( ) **white-armed (, ) *

Aphrodite Aphrodite (, ) is an Greek mythology, ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, procreation, and as her syncretism, syncretised Roman counterpart , desire, Sexual intercourse, sex, fertility, prosperity, and ...

**laughter-loving ( ) **daughter of Zeus ( ) **goddess of love **fair ( ) *

Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...

**Phoebus, i.e. the Bright or Pure, ( ) **with unshorn hair; i.e., ever-young ( ) **destroyer of mice ( ) **distant deadly Archer ( ) **far-aiming lord ( ) **rouser of armies **son of Zeus ( ) **of the silver bow ( ) **famous with the bow ( ) **whom the sleek-haired Leto has born ( ) *

Ares Ares (; , ''Árēs'' ) is the List of Greek deities, Greek god of war god, war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for ...

**slayer of men ( ) **sacker of cities (πτολι-πόρθιος ''ptoli-pórthios'') **bronzen ( ) **furious ( ) **destroyer of city walls ( ) **of the glinting helmet * Ariadne **lovely-haired ( ) *

Artemis In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...

**the archer-goddess **shooter of arrows ( ) *

Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretism, syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarde ...

**Pallas ( ) **gray-, bright-eyed ( ) **daughter of Zeus **third-born of the gods **whose shield is thunder **hope of soldiers **tireless one * Briseis **beautiful-, fair-cheeked ( ) **fair-haired ( ) * Calypso **beautiful nymph **softly-braided nymph **divine **goddess most divinely made **daughter of Atlas **cunning goddess ( ) * Charybdis **dreaded * Chryseis **beautiful, fair-cheeked ( ) *

Circe In Greek mythology, Circe (; ) is an enchantress, sometimes considered a goddess or a nymph. In most accounts, Circe is described as the daughter of the sun god Helios and the Oceanid Perse (mythology), Perse. Circe was renowned for her vast kn ...

**enchantress **shining among goddesses, bright among goddesses **the dread goddess **who talks with mortals **Aeaean *

Cronus In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Cronus, Cronos, or Kronos ( or ; ) was the leader and youngest of the Titans, the children of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (mythology), Uranus (Sky). He overthrew his father and ruled dur ...

(Kronos) **crooked-counselling, devious-devising ( ) **all-powerful *

Demeter In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Demeter (; Attic Greek, Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric Greek, Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Twelve Olympians, Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over cro ...

**fair-haired *

Diomedes Diomedes (Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. ''Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary''. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.) or Diomede (; ) is a hero in Greek mythology, known for his participation in the Trojan ...

**son of Tydeus **great spearman **master of the war cry **god-like **strong **breaker of horses, horse-taming ( ) *

Eos In ancient Greek mythology and Ancient Greek religion, religion, Eos (; Ionic Greek, Ionic and Homeric Greek ''Ēṓs'', Attic Greek, Attic ''Héōs'', "dawn", or ; Aeolic Greek, Aeolic ''Aúōs'', Doric Greek, Doric ''Āṓs'') is the go ...

**Rosy-fingered (''rhododactylos'') **Early-born (''Erigeneia'') **Of the golden throne *

Hector In Greek mythology, Hector (; , ) was a Trojan prince, a hero and the greatest warrior for Troy during the Trojan War. He is a major character in Homer's ''Iliad'', where he leads the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, killing c ...

**tall **shepherd of the people **of the glinting helmet, of the shining helm ( ) **man-killing **breaker of horses, horse-taming ( ) **dear to Zeus **glorious (''phaidimos'') * Helen **daughter of a noble house **Daughter of Zeus who holds the aegis **long-dressed *

Helios In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Helios (; ; Homeric Greek: ) is the god who personification, personifies the Sun. His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyperion ("the one above") an ...

**who brings joy to mortals **the sun god **who sees all things and listens to all things, all seeing and all hearing **brilliant **Hyperion *

Hera In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; ; in Ionic Greek, Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women, and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Oly ...

**ox-eyed lady ( ) *

Hephaestus Hephaestus ( , ; wikt:Hephaestus#Alternative forms, eight spellings; ) is the Greek god of artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, craftsmen, fire, metallurgy, metalworking, sculpture and volcanoes.Walter Burkert, ''Greek Religion'' 1985: III.2. ...

**the famous craftsman **the famous lame god **of the strong arms *

Hermes Hermes (; ) is an Olympian deity in ancient Greek religion and mythology considered the herald of the gods. He is also widely considered the protector of human heralds, travelers, thieves, merchants, and orators. He is able to move quic ...

**messenger of the gods and conductor of men ( ) **slayer of Argos ( ) **son of Zeus **giant-killer **the strong one **keen eyes emissary * Icarius **great-hearted ( ) * Ino **lovely-ankled () * Iris **wind-footed *

Menelaus In Greek mythology, Menelaus (; ) was a Greek king of Mycenaean (pre- Dorian) Sparta. According to the ''Iliad'', the Trojan war began as a result of Menelaus's wife, Helen, fleeing to Troy with the Trojan prince Paris. Menelaus was a central ...

**red-haired, fair-haired, flaming-haired **master of the war-cry **son of Atreus ( ) **spear-famed **loved by Ares, war-like ( ) **cherished by Zeus ( ) *Naubolos **great-hearted ( ) * Nestor **breaker of horses, horse-tamer ( ) **Godly **Gerenian charioteer **son of Neleus ( ) **Pylos born king **sweet spoken **wise old *

Odysseus In Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology, Odysseus ( ; , ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; ), is a legendary Greeks, Greek king of Homeric Ithaca, Ithaca and the hero of Homer's Epic poetry, epic poem, the ''Odyssey''. Od ...

**resourceful, man of many resources, of many turns, man of twists and turns ( ) **much-enduring, long suffering ( ) **great-hearted ( ) **sacker of cities ( ) **wise **loved of Zeus **great glory of the Achaeans **master mariner **mastermind of war **hotheaded **honored **man of action **the great teller of tales **man of exploits **man of pain **that kingly man **hero () **raider, sacker of cities ( ) **the great tactician **cunning ( ) *

Onchestos Onchestos or Onchestus () was a Greek town in ancient Boeotia northwest of Thebes, Greece, Thebes. In ancient times it was famous for its sanctuary of Poseidon. The site has been excavated intermittently since the 1960s. It was in the territory ...

**sacred * Pandaros **son of Lykaon *

Patroclus In Greek mythology, Patroclus (generally pronounced ; ) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War and an important character in Homer's ''Iliad''. Born in Opus, Patroclus was the son of the Argonaut Menoetius. When he was a child, he was exiled from ...

**son of Menoitius ( ) **Zeus-born, sprung from Zeus () **dear to Zeus () **great-hearted ( ) **horseman ( or ) **peerless () **peer to gods in counsel () **gentle () **hero () *

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

**Alexandros **magnificent *

Penelope Penelope ( ; Ancient Greek: Πηνελόπεια, ''Pēnelópeia'', or , ''Pēnelópē'') is a character in Homer's ''Odyssey.'' She was the queen of Homer's Ithaca, Ithaca and was the daughter of Spartan king Icarius (Spartan), Icarius and ...

**cautious **careful **circumspect **daughter of Icarius **discreet **temperate **wise **self-obsessed *

Poseidon Poseidon (; ) is one of the twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and mythology, presiding over the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 He was the protector of seafarers and the guardian of many Hellenic cit ...

**earth-shaker ( or ) **earth-moving, earth-carrying ( ) *

Sarpedon Sarpedon (; ) is the name of several figures in Greek mythology * Sarpedon, a son of Zeus, who fought on the side of Troy in the Trojan War. Although in the ''Iliad'', he was the son of Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Gre ...

**leader of the Lycians * Suitors **swaggering **haughty *

Telemachus In Greek mythology, Telemachus ( ; ) is the son of Odysseus and Penelope, who are central characters in Homer's ''Odyssey''. When Telemachus reached manhood, he visited Pylos and Sparta in search of his wandering father. On his return to Ithaca, ...

**poised **thoughtful **prudent *

Thetis Thetis ( , or ; ) is a figure from Greek mythology with varying mythological roles. She mainly appears as a sea nymph, a goddess of water, and one of the 50 Nereids, daughters of the ancient sea god Nereus. When described as a Nereid in Cl ...

**silver-footed * Thersites **of the endless speech *

Tiresias In Greek mythology, Tiresias (; ) was a blind prophet of Apollo in Thebes, Greece, Thebes, famous for clairvoyance and for being transformed into a woman for seven years. He was the son of the shepherd Everes (mythology), Everes and the nymph ...

**the blind prophet **the Theban *

Tydeus Tydeus (; Ancient Greek: Τυδεύς ''Tūdeus'') was an Aetolian hero in Greek mythology, belonging to the generation before the Trojan War. He was one of the Seven against Thebes, and the father of Diomedes, who is frequently known by the patr ...

**driver of horses *

Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...

**mighty **son of Kronos ( ) **wide-seeing **cloud-gatherer, who marshals the thunderheads ( ) **father of gods and men ( , Iliad 11.182) **of the dazzling bolt ( ) **loud-thundering ( ) **delighting in thunder ( ) **dark-clouded **

aegis The aegis ( ; ''aigís''), as stated in the ''Iliad'', is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a ...

-holding ( ) **of the counsels (''metieta'') **of the wide brows, wide browed (''euryopa)''

Shared

, Polites **son of Priam ( ) * Antilochus,

Pisistratus Pisistratus (also spelled Peisistratus or Peisistratos; ; – 527 BC) was a politician in ancient Athens, ruling as tyrant in the late 560s, the early 550s and from 546 BC until his death. His unification of Attica, the triangular p ...

**son of Nestor ( ) *

**son of

Atreus In Greek mythology, Atreus (, ) was a king of Mycenae in the Peloponnese, the son of Pelops and Hippodamia (daughter of Oenomaus), Hippodamia, and the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. His descendants became known collectively as the Atreidae ...

( ) *

, Nestor **breaker of horses, horse-tamer ( ) *

**best of the Achaeans *

**man-slaughtering *

**master of the war-cry *

**aegis-holding ( )

Notes

Sources

* Parry, Milman. "L'Épithète traditionnelle dans Homère: Essai sur un problème de style homérique." Paris: Société d'Éditions "Les Belles Lettres", 1928. * Parry, Milman, ed. Adam Parry. "The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry." Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971. * Edwards, Mark. "Homer and the Oral Tradition: The Formula (part one)." ''Oral Tradition'' 1 (1986) 171-230. * Edwards, Mark. "Homer and the Oral Tradition: The Formula (part two)." ''Oral Tradition'' 3 (1988) 11-60. * Reece, Steve. "Greek Epic Formulae," in Giorgios Giannakis (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and Linguistics'' (Leiden: Brill, 2014) 613-615
Greek_Epic_Formulas
* Reece, Steve. "Epithets," in Margalit Finkelberg (ed.), ''Homeric Encyclopedia'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 2011) 257-259
Epithets
* V.J. Howe, "Epithets in Homer." Available online at https://www.angelfire.com/art/archictecture/articles/008.htm. (Retrieved October 16, 2007.) * Fagles, Robert. "The Odyssey." Penguin Books, 1996. {{DEFAULTSORT:Epithets In Homer Homeric Greek