National Democracy (, often abbreviated as ND or known as ''Endecja''; ) was a Polish

political movement A political movement is a collective attempt by a group of people to change government policy or social values. Political movements are usually in opposition to an element of the status quo, and are often associated with a certain ideology. Some t ...

that operated from the second half of the 19th century, during the

partitions of Poland The Partitions of Poland were three partition (politics), partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place between 1772 and 1795, toward the end of the 18th century. They ended the existence of the state, resulting in the eli ...

, until the end of the

Second Polish Republic The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I ...

. It effectively ceased to exist following the Germano–Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. Throughout its history, National Democracy underwent several phases of development. Initially founded to advocate for Poland's sovereignty against the foreign imperial powers, the movement adopted a

right-wing Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position based on natural law, economics, authority, property ...

nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...

orientation after the country regained independence. Its key founder and principal ideologue was

Roman Dmowski Roman Stanisław Dmowski Polish: (9 August 1864 – 2 January 1939) was a Polish right-wing politician, statesman, and co-founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy (abbreviated "ND": in Polish, "''Endecja''") political movement ...

, with other influential figures in the movement including Zygmunt Balicki and Jan Ludwik Popławski. National Democracy found its main base of support in

Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; ), is a Polish Polish historical regions, historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest city in Poland. The bound ...

(western Poland), where early momentum was driven by opposition to

Imperial Germany The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...

Germanization Germanisation, or Germanization, is the spread of the German language, German people, people, and German culture, culture. It was a central idea of German conservative thought in the 19th and the 20th centuries, when conservatism and ethnic nati ...

policies in Polish territories. Over time, the movement's focus shifted toward addressing what it perceived as economic competition between Polish Catholics and the Jewish community. The party's supporters primarily consisted of the ethnically Polish intelligentsia, the urban lower-middle class, segments of the middle class, and a significant youth wing. During the

interbellum In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...

Second Republic, the ND was a strong proponent for the

Polonization Polonization or Polonisation ()In Polish historiography, particularly pre-WWII (e.g., L. Wasilewski. As noted in Смалянчук А. Ф. (Smalyanchuk 2001) Паміж краёвасцю і нацыянальнай ідэяй. Польскі ...

of the country's German minority and of other non-Polish (Belarusian, Jewish, Lithuanian and Ukrainian) populations in Poland's eastern border regions (the ''

Kresy Eastern Borderlands (), often simply Borderlands (, ) was a historical region of the eastern part of the Second Polish Republic. The term was coined during the interwar period (1918–1939). Largely agricultural and extensively multi-ethnic with ...

''). With the end of

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

, the occupation of the country by the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

, and the establishment of the

Polish People's Republic The Polish People's Republic (1952–1989), formerly the Republic of Poland (1947–1952), and also often simply known as Poland, was a country in Central Europe that existed as the predecessor of the modern-day democratic Republic of Poland. ...

, the National Democracy movement effectively ceased to exist.

Origins

The origins of the ND can be traced to the 1864 failure of the January 1863 Uprising and to the era of

Positivism in Poland Polish Positivism ( ) was a social, literary and philosophical movement that became dominant in late-19th-century partitioned Poland following Romanticism in Poland and the suppression of the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian Empire. The ...

. After that Uprising – the last in a series of 19th-century Polish uprisings – had been bloodily crushed by Poland's partitioners, a new generation of Polish patriots and politicians concluded that Poland's independence would not be won through force on the battlefield, but through education and culture. In 1886, the secret '' Polish League'' (Liga Polska) was founded. In 1893 it was renamed ''

National League National League often refers to: *National League (baseball), one of the two baseball leagues constituting Major League Baseball in the United States and Canada *National League (division), the fifth division of the English football (soccer) system ...

'' (Liga Narodowa). From 1895, the League published a newspaper, ''Przegląd Wszechpolski'' (The All-Polish Review); from 1897, it had an official political party, the '' National-Democratic Party'' (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne). Unlike the

Polish Socialist Party The Polish Socialist Party (, PPS) is a democratic socialist political party in Poland. It was one of the most significant parties in Poland from its founding in 1892 until its forced merger with the communist Polish Workers' Party to form ...

(''PPS''), the ND advocated peaceful negotiations, not armed resistance. Influenced by

's radical nationalist and social-Darwinist ideas, National Democrats soon turned against other nationalities within the Polish lands, most notably the Jews;

antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...

became an element of ND ideology. During

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, while the PPS under

Józef Piłsudski Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...

aligned with the

Central Powers The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,; ; , ; were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulga ...

against

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

(through the Polish Legions), the ND initially allied with the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

(supporting the creation of the Puławy Legion) and later with the

Western Powers The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also constitute the West. ...

(supporting the Polish Blue Army in

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

). At the end of the war, many ND leaders held more influence abroad than in Poland, which allowed them to use their diplomatic leverage to share power with Piłsudski, who had broader military and domestic support. Due to their connections abroad, ND politicians such as Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski were able to secure international backing for their positions at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and in the

Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allies of World War I, Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace ...

Second Republic

In the newly independent

, the ND was initially represented by the ''

Popular National Union Związek Ludowo-Narodowy (ZLN; ) was a Polish political party aligned with the National Democracy political movement during the Second Polish Republic, gathering together right-wing politicians with conservative and nationalist opinions. Between ...

'' (Związek Ludowo-Narodowy), a conservative political party that advocated its program through democratic and parliamentary means. After Piłsudski's May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', the ND found itself in opposition to his

Sanacja Sanation (, ) was a Polish political movement that emerged in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May Coup (Poland), May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and gained influence following the coup. In 1928, its political activists went on to fo ...

government. The increasing control exerted by the Sanacja regime over opposition parties and its shift toward more authoritarian policies contributed to the gradual radicalization of the ND movement. In December 1926, the '' Camp of Great Poland'' (Obóz Wielkiej Polski) was formed as an extra-parliamentary organization opposing the Sanacja government. The youth wing of the Camp of Great Poland gradually took control of the entire organization; by 1931, the camp became more radicalized and incorporated some militaristic elements. In 1928, the '' National Party'' (Stronnictwo Narodowe) was founded as the successor to the Popular National Union. Initially, the new party followed the same political line as its predecessor. Following the official banning of the Camp of Great Poland, more radicalized youth joined the National Party. A generational divide between the older and younger factions of National Democrats came to a head at the 1935 party convention, where younger activists took leadership of the party. From 1936 to 1939, these personnel changes continued, and the younger generation became dominant in the party. The older generation, disagreeing with the new direction, either left active politics or exited the party. A key aspect of ND policies during this time was their focus on

of minorities. ND figures like Dmowski and

Stanisław Grabski Stanisław Grabski (; 5 April 1871 – 6 May 1949) was a Polish economist and politician associated with the National Democracy (Poland), National Democracy political camp. As the top Polish negotiator during the Peace of Riga talks in 1921, Gra ...

played a role in opposing Piłsudski's proposed '' Międzymorze''

federation A federation (also called a federal state) is an entity characterized by a political union, union of partially federated state, self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a #Federal governments, federal government (federalism) ...

and the

alliance An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or sovereign state, states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not an explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an a ...

with Ukrainian leader Symon Petlura, contributing to tensions with Poland’s

ethnic minorities The term "minority group" has different meanings, depending on the context. According to common usage, it can be defined simply as a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half of a population. Usually a minority g ...

. At the same time, the ND expressed an antisemitic stance, advocating for the exclusion of Jews from certain aspects of Polish social and economic life and encouraging emigration from Poland. Throughout the 1930s, antisemitic actions and incidents, including

boycotts A boycott is an act of nonviolent resistance, nonviolent, voluntary abstention from a product, person, organisation, or country as an expression of protest. It is usually for Morality, moral, society, social, politics, political, or Environmenta ...

, demonstrations, and even attacks, were organized or inspired by National Democrats. The most prominent of these actions were carried out by a splinter group of radical young former NDs who later formed the

fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...

-influenced National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny).

World War II

During

, the ND became part of a

coalition A coalition is formed when two or more people or groups temporarily work together to achieve a common goal. The term is most frequently used to denote a formation of power in political, military, or economic spaces. Formation According to ''A G ...

which formed the

Polish Government in Exile The Polish government-in-exile, officially known as the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile (), was the government in exile A government-in-exile (GiE) is a political group that claims to be the legitimate government of a sovere ...

. It was closely linked with the

National Armed Forces National Armed Forces (; NSZ) was a Polish right-wing underground military organization of the National Democracy (Poland), National Democracy operating from 1942. During World War II, NSZ troops fought against Nazi Germany and Gwardia Ludowa, c ...

(Narodowe Siły Zbrojne), an underground organization that became part of the Polish resistance movement. ND armed organizations fought not only against

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...

but also against the

. Both occupying forces regarded members of the movement as their mortal enemy, and its leaders were hunted down and killed in mass executions, in concentration camps, and in the Katyń massacre. Among those killed are: * Leopold Bieńkowski (father of Zygmunt Witymir Bieńkowski), arrested by the

NKVD The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (, ), abbreviated as NKVD (; ), was the interior ministry and secret police of the Soviet Union from 1934 to 1946. The agency was formed to succeed the Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) se ...

in early 1940, died in a Soviet concentration camp near

Arkhangelsk Arkhangelsk (, ) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina near its mouth into the White Sea. The city spreads for over along the ...

in 1941 * reverend Feliks Bolt, a senator of the Republic of Poland, died in Stutthof in 1940 * Tadeusz Fabiani, a lawyer, shot at Pawiak in 1940 *

Stanisław Głąbiński Stanisław Głąbiński (25 February 1862 – 14 August 1941) was a Polish politician, academic, lawyer and writer who served in 1918 as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Poland. Early years Głąbiński was born on 25 Februa ...

, died in NKVD prison in Lubyanka in 1940 * doctor Wincenty Harembski, shot in NKVD prison in Kharkiv in 1940 * Tadeusz Zygmunt Hernes, journalist, killed in Katyń massacre * Czesław Jóźwiak, murdered by the

Gestapo The (, ), Syllabic abbreviation, abbreviated Gestapo (), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe. The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of F ...

in 1940 in

Dresden Dresden (; ; Upper Saxon German, Upper Saxon: ''Dräsdn''; , ) is the capital city of the States of Germany, German state of Saxony and its second most populous city after Leipzig. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, 12th most p ...

prison * Jan Mosdorf, Auschwitz * reverend Marceli Nowakowski, shot in

Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...

in December 1939 *

Stanisław Piasecki Stanisław Piasecki (15 December 1900 – 12 June 1941) was a Polish right-wing activist, politician and journalist of partially Jewish descent. Piasecki was born on 15 December 1900 in Lviv, Lwów, Austrian Galicia. He was the son of scouting a ...

, writer, shot in Palmiry in June 1941 * reverend Józef Prądzyński, died in the

Dachau concentration camp Dachau (, ; , ; ) was one of the first concentration camps built by Nazi Germany and the longest-running one, opening on 22 March 1933. The camp was initially intended to intern Hitler's political opponents, which consisted of communists, s ...

in 1942 * Jozefat Sikorski, murdered by the Gestapo in the Berlin-Plotzensee prison in 1942 * Michał Starczewski, murdered in the Katyn massacre * Tadeusz Szefer, murdered in the Katyn massacre * Jan Szturmowski, murdered by the Germans in September 1939 * Jan Waliński, murdered by the NKVD in Kharkiv in 1940 * Antoni Wolniewicz, murdered by the Gestapo in the Berlin-Plotzensee prison in 1942 * Jan Wujastyk, murdered in the Katyń massacre

Righteous among the Nations

* Edward Kemnitz * Marceli Godlewski

After the war

After the war, when a pro-Soviet communist government came to power in Poland, most remaining NDs either emigrated to

the West West is a cardinal direction or compass point. West or The West may also refer to: Geography and locations Global context * The Western world * Western culture and Western civilization in general * The Western Bloc, countries allied with NAT ...

or continued to oppose the

Communist regime A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...

. Some, however, chose to collaborate with the new regime, most notably

Bolesław Piasecki Bolesław Bogdan Piasecki, Pseudonym, alias Leon Całka, Wojciech z Królewca, Sablewski (18 February 1915 – 1 January 1979) was a Polish people, Polish writer, politician and Political Theorist, political theorist. During the war, he was acti ...

, leader of the ''RNR-Falanga'', who co-organized a

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

movement. These ex-Endeks within the ruling Communist Party aided the formation of a unique Party faction by 1956, the so-called "'' Endokomuna''." This faction blended hardline

Stalinism Stalinism (, ) is the Totalitarianism, totalitarian means of governing and Marxism–Leninism, Marxist–Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union (USSR) from History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953), 1927 to 1953 by dictator Jose ...

with Polish nationalism and Catholic communism, using similar rhetoric to National Democracy. ''Endokomuna'' attempted to use the traditional

Russophilia Russophilia is the identification or solidarity with, appreciation of, or support for the country, people, language, and history of Russia. One who espouses Russophilia is called a russophile. Its antonym is Russophobia. In the 19th century, ...

and

anti-Western sentiment Anti-Western sentiment, also known as anti-Atlanticism or Westernophobia, refers to broad opposition, bias, or hostility towards the people, culture, or policies of the Western world. This sentiment is found worldwide. It often stems from ant ...

of National Democracy to grow support for the Communist regime. Its activists were involved in "

anti-Zionist Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism. Although anti-Zionism is a heterogeneous phenomenon, all its proponents agree that the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, and the movement to create a sovereign Jewish state in the Palestine (region) ...

anti-Semitic Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...

agitation against the country's remaining Jewish minority during the

1968 Polish political crisis A series of major student, intellectual and other protests against the ruling Polish United Workers' Party of the Polish People's Republic took place in Poland in March 1968. The crisis led to the suppression of student strikes by security forces ...

. By the 1980s, "Endo-Communism" had become a dominant ideology of the ruling coalition, which was reformed into the

Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth Patriotyczny Ruch Odrodzenia Narodowego (PRON, ) was a Polish popular front that ruled the Polish People's Republic. It was created in the aftermath of the martial law in Poland (1982). Gathering various pro-communist and pro-government organizati ...

(PRON). Chaired by Endecja activist

Jan Dobraczyński Jan Dobraczyński (born 20 April 1910 – 5 March 1994, Warsaw) was a Polish writer, novelist, politician and Catholic publicist.Encyklopedia PWN (2017)Internetowa encyklopedia PWN In the Second Polish Republic between the two world wars, he w ...

, this coalition aimed to counter the influence of anti-Communist opposition movements, primarily

Solidarity Solidarity or solidarism is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. True solidarity means moving beyond individual identities and single issue politics ...

, using nationalist rhetoric. As such, PRON commonly used slogans and themes from National Democracy, with activists such as

Maciej Giertych Maciej Marian Giertych (, born 24 March 1936 in Warsaw) is a Polish dendrologist and former far-right politician of the League of Polish Families (LPR). He favours state intervention in the economy. He was a member of the Sejm (between 2001 an ...

serving on its Advisory Council.

Contemporary Poland

Since the

fall of communism The revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, were a revolutionary wave of liberal democracy movements that resulted in the collapse of most Marxist–Leninist governments in the Eastern Bloc and other parts of the world. Th ...

, with Poland once again a democratically governed country, several political groups have sought to revive some of the traditions of National Democracy, with their supporters often referring to themselves as the "National Movement" (''Ruch Narodowy''). The only significant party that has declared itself a successor to the ND is the ''

League of Polish Families The League of Polish Families ( Polish: ''Liga Polskich Rodzin,'' , LPR) is a social conservative political party in Poland, with many far-right elements in the past. The party's original ideology was that of the National Democracy movement whic ...

'' (Liga Polskich Rodzin), founded in 2001 by

Roman Giertych Roman Jacek Giertych (; born 27 February 1971) is a Polish political figure and advocate. Giertych served in a PiS-led government as Deputy Prime Minister of Poland and Minister of National Education from May 2006 to August 2007. He was a mem ...

, grandson of

Jędrzej Giertych Jędrzej Giertych (7 January 1903 – 9 October 1992) was a Polish right-wing politician, journalist and writer. Biography Jędrzej Giertych was born in Sosnowiec on 7 January 1903, the son of Franciszek Giertych (1868–1938), an engineer. ...

, a pre-war ND politician. The party received 8% of the parliamentary vote in 2001 and 16% in 2004, but fell below the 5% threshold in 2007 and lost all of its parliamentary seats. Another Polish national-democratic association with legal standing is the Camp of Great Poland. This association was established on March 28, 2003, by the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe; SN) Youth Section in response to the removal of the party from the national registry. On February 17, 2012, the OWP was registered in the National Registrar of Companies and Legal Entities (Krajowy Rejestr Sądowy; KRS), gaining legal personality. Today, the main party promoting National Democracy is the National Movement. The party was originally formed as a nationalist coalition by Robert Winnicki,

Krzysztof Bosak Krzysztof Bosak (, born 13 June 1982) is a far-right Polish politician. He serves as the Deputy Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. He was a member of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, Sejm for the League of Polish Families from 2005 ...

, and other former members of the LPR. As of 2025, the National Movement has 7 deputies in the

Sejm The Sejm (), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (), is the lower house of the bicameralism, bicameral parliament of Poland. The Sejm has been the highest governing body of the Third Polish Republic since the Polish People' ...

, as part of a broader right-wing

Confederation A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...

coalition.
The newspaper '' Nasz Dziennik'' is often associated with viewpoints that align with national-democratic ideas.B. Sobczak
''Medialne obrazy świata z perspektywy retorycznej (na przykładzie recepcji medialnej śmierci i pochówku Czesława Miłosza)''
„Poznańskie Studia Polonistyczne. Seria Językoznawcza”, 18, 2011, 2, s. 37.

Organizations

Polish Party The Polish Party () was a political party in the German Empire and the Free City of Danzig. Representing the Polish population in Germany, it was the largest of the minority parties. History The party had its origins in the national associatio ...

(German partition) * National-Democratic Party (Russian partition) *

* Society for the Promotion of Polish Industry and Trade "Rozwój" * National Party * Camp of Great Poland

Modern

* National Party * National Party "Fatherland" *

* National Movement * Organisation of the Polish Nation - Polish League

Notables

* Zygmunt Balicki * Ignacy Chrzanowski *

Adam Doboszyński Adam Doboszyński (11 January 1904 - 29 August 1949) was a soldier of the Polish Army, writer, engineer, and a social activist. Born in 1904 in Kraków, he was executed by the Communist secret services in 1949, in the notorious Mokotów Prison i ...

Władysław Grabski Władysław Dominik Grabski (; 7 July 1874 – 1 March 1938) was a Polish National Democratic politician, economist and historian. He was the main author of the currency reform in the Second Polish Republic and served as Prime Minister of Pola ...

Józef Haller Józef Haller (''de Hallenburg''; 13 August 1873 – 4 June 1960) was a Polish lieutenant general and legionary in the Polish Legions during the First World War. He was a harcmistrz (the highest Scouting instructor rank in Poland), the p ...

Feliks Koneczny Feliks Karol Koneczny (; 1 November 1862 – 10 February 1949) was a Polish historian, theatrical critic, librarian, journalist and social philosopher. He founded the original system of the comparative science of civilizations. Biography Ko ...

Władysław Konopczyński Władysław Konopczyński (26 November 1880 – 12 July 1952) was a leading Polish historian''Encyklopedia Polski'', p. 305. and publisher of primary-source materials.''Encyklopedia powszechna PWN'', vol. 2, p. 539. Life Władysław Konopczyń ...

Wojciech Korfanty Wojciech Korfanty (; born Adalbert Korfanty; 20 April 1873 – 17 August 1939) was a Polish activist, journalist and politician, who served as a member of the German parliaments, the Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag, and later, in the Poli ...

* Stanisław Kozicki * Leon Mirecki * Jan Mosdorf * Jan Ludwik Popławski * Roman Rybarski * Marian Seyda *

Józef Świeżyński Józef Świeżyński (; 19 April 1868 – 12 February 1948) was the prime minister of the Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918), Kingdom of Poland for a short time — from 23 October 1918 to 4 November 1918. Citations

1868 births 194 ...

* Zygmunt Wasilewski * Maurycy Zamoyski

Notes

References

External links

Digital Library of National Thought
(Polish)