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Draft evasion is any successful attempt to elude a government-imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one's nation. Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military draft laws of one's nation. Illegal draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries, in which at least one party of such conflict has enforced conscription. Such evasion is generally considered to be a criminal offense,Beare, Margaret E., ed. (2012). ''Encyclopedia of Transnational Crime and Justice''. Sage Publications, p. 110 ("Draft Dodging" entry). . and laws against it go back thousands of years. There are many draft evasion practices. Those that manage to adhere to or circumvent the law, and those that do not involve taking a public stand, are sometimes referred to as draft avoidance. Draft evaders are sometimes pejoratively referred to as draft dodgers,Bell, Walter F. "Draft Dodgers". In Tucker, Spencer C. (2013). ''American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection''. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp. 545–546. . although in certain contexts that term has also been used non-judgmentally or as an honorific. Practices that involve lawbreaking or taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Although draft resistance is discussed below as a form of "draft evasion", draft resisters and scholars of draft resistance reject the categorization of resistance as a form of evasion or avoidance. Draft resisters argue that they seek to confront, not evade or avoid, the draft. Draft evasion has been a significant phenomenon in nations as different as Colombia, Eritrea,
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
,
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
,
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
,
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eas ...
, Syria, and the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
. Accounts by scholars and journalists, along with memoiristic writings by draft evaders, indicate that the motives and beliefs of the evaders cannot be usefully stereotyped.


Draft evasion practices

Young people have engaged in a wide variety of draft evasion practices around the world, some of which date back thousands of years.Prasad, Devi; Smythe, Tony, eds. (1968). ''Conscription: A World Survey: Compulsory Military Service and Resistance To It''. London:
War Resisters' International War Resisters' International (WRI), headquartered in London, is an international anti-war organisation with members and affiliates in over 30 countries. History ''War Resisters' International'' was founded in Bilthoven, Netherlands in 1921 unde ...
. .
Christ, Matthew R. (2006). ''The Bad Citizen in Classical Athens''. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press, pp. 52–57 (from the "Draft Evasion and Compulsory Military Service" section). . This section aims to delineate a representative sampling of draft evasion practices and support activities as identified by scholars and journalists. ''Examples'' of many of these practices and activities can be found in the section on draft evasion in the nations of the world, further down this page.


Draft avoidance

One type of draft avoidance consists of attempts to follow the letter and spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a legally valid draft deferment or exemption.Wittmann, Anna M. (2016). ''Talking Conflict: The Loaded Language of Genocide, Political Violence, Terrorism, and Warfatre''. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp. 115–116 ("Draft Dodgers" entry). . Sometimes these deferments and exemptions are prompted by political considerations. Another type consists of attempts to circumvent, manipulate, or surreptitiously violate the substance or spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a deferment or exemption. Nearly all attempts at draft avoidance are private and unpublicized. Examples include:


By adhering to the law

* Claiming conscientious objector status on the basis of sincerely held religious or ethical beliefs. Gitlin, Todd (1993, orig. 1987). ''The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage''. New York: Bantam, rev. ed., pp. 291–292 (beginning of "Varieties of Antiwar Experience" section). . * Claiming a student deferment, when one is in school primarily in order to study and learn. Kusch, Frank (2001). ''All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam War''. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, pp. 70–74. . * Claiming a medical or psychological problem, if the purported health issue is genuine and serious. * Claiming to be homosexual, when one is truly so and the military excludes homosexuals. * Claiming economic hardship, if the hardship is genuine and the law recognizes such a claim. * Holding a job in what the government considers to be an essential civilian occupation. * Purchasing exemptions from military service, in nations where such payments are permitted. Duxbury, Neil (2002). ''Random Justice: On Lotteries and Legal Decision-Making''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 154–155 (citing 19th century Belgium and France, as well as America during the Civil War). . * Not being chosen in a draft lottery, where lotteries determine the order of call to military service; Fallows, James (1977). "What Did You Do in the Class War, Daddy?" In Robbins, Mary Susannah, ed. (2007, orig. 1999). ''Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists''. London and Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 159–164. . or not being in a certain age group, where age determines the order of call. * Not being able to afford armor or other equipment, in polities where conscripts were required to provide their own.


By circumventing the law

* Obtaining conscientious objector status by professing insincere religious or ethical beliefs. * Obtaining a student deferment, if the student wishes to attend or remain in school largely to avoid the draft. * Claiming a medical or psychological problem, if the purported problem is feigned, overstated, or self-inflicted. * Finding a doctor who would certify a healthy draft-age person as medically unfit, either willingly or for pay.Baskir and Strauss (1987), p. 12. * Falsely claiming to be homosexual, where the military excludes homosexuals. * Claiming economic hardship, if the purported hardship is overstated. * Deliberately failing one's military-related intelligence tests. * Becoming pregnant primarily in order to evade the draft, in nations where women who are not mothers are drafted. * Having someone exert personal influence on an officer in charge of the conscription process. * Successfully bribing an officer in charge of the conscription process.


Draft resistance

Draft evasion that involves overt lawbreaking or that communicates conscious or organized resistance to government policy is sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Ferber, Michael (1998). "Why I Joined the Resistance". In Robbins, Mary Susannah, ed. (2007, orig. 1999). ''Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists''. London and Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 111–119. .Foley, Michael S. (2003). ''Confronting the War Machine: Draft Resistance During the Vietnam War''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, pp. 6–7, 39, 49, 78. . Examples include:


Actions by resisters

* Declining to register for the draft, in nations where that is required by law. * Declining to report for one's draft-related physical examination, or for military induction or call-up, in nations where these are required by law. * Participating in draft card burnings or turn-ins. * Living "underground" (e.g., living with false identification papers) and working at an unreported job after being indicted for draft evasion. * Traveling or emigrating to another country, rather than submitting to induction or to trial.Williams, Roger N. (1971). ''The New Exiles: American War Resisters in Canada''. New York: Liveright Publishers. . * Going to jail, rather than submitting to induction or to alternative government service.


Actions by supporters or resisters

* Organizing or participating in a peaceful street assembly or demonstration against the draft. * Publicly encouraging, aiding, or abetting draft evaders. * Deliberately disrupting a military draft agency's processes or procedures. * Destroying a military draft agency's records. * Organizing or participating in a riot against the draft.Cook, Adrian (2014, orig. 1982). ''The Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1863''. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. . * Building an
anti-war movement An anti-war movement (also ''antiwar'') is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term anti-war can also refer to p ...
that treats draft resistance as a vital and integral part of it.


By country

Draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries. Laws against certain draft evasion practices go back at least as far as the ancient Greeks. ''Examples'' of draft evasion can be found in many nations over many time periods:


Belgium

Nineteenth century Belgium was one of the few places where most citizens accepted the practice of legally buying one's way out of the military draft, sometimes referred to as the practice of "purchasable military commutation". Even so, some Belgian politicians denounced it as a system that appeared to trade the money of the rich for the lives of the poor.


Britain

In January 1916, during World War I, the British government passed a military conscription bill. By July of that year, 30% of draftees had failed to report for service.


Canada

Canada employed a military draft during World Wars I and II, and some Canadians chose to evade it. According to Canadian historian
Jack Granatstein Jack Lawrence Granatstein (May 21, 1939) is a Canadian historian who specializes in Canadian political and military history.SeJack Granatsteinfrom The Canadian Encyclopedia Education Born on May 21, 1939, in Toronto, Ontario, into a Jewish fam ...
, "no single issue has divided Canadians so sharply" as the military draft.Granatstein, J. L.; Hitsman, J. M. (2017, orig. 1977). ''Broken Promises: A History of Conscription in Canada''. Oakville, Ontario: Rock's Mills Press (orig. Toronto: Oxford University Press), p. v. . During both World Wars, political parties collapsed or were torn apart over the draft issue, and ethnicity seeped into the equation, with most French Canadians opposing conscription and a majority of English Canadians accepting it. During both wars, riots and draft evasion followed the passage of the draft laws.


World War I

Conscription had been a dividing force in Canadian politics during World War I, and those divisions led to the Conscription Crisis of 1917. Canadians objected to conscription for diverse reasons: some thought it unnecessary, some did not identify with the British, and some felt it imposed unfair burdens on economically struggling segments of society. When the first draft class (single men between 20 and 34 years of age) was called up in 1917, nearly 281,000 of the approximately 404,000 men filed for exemptions. Throughout the war, some Canadians who feared conscription left for the United States or elsewhere.


World War II

Canada introduced an innovative kind of draft law in 1940 with the National Resources Mobilization Act.Byers, David (2017). ''Zombie Army: The Canadian Army and Conscription in the Second World War''. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, Part 2. . While the move was not unpopular outside French Canada, controversy arose because under the new law, conscripts were not compelled to serve outside Canada. They could choose simply to defend the country against invasion. By the middle of the war, many Canadians – not least of all, conscripts committed to overseas service – were referring to NRMA men pejoratively as "Zombies", that is, as dead-to-life or utterly useless. Following costly fighting in
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
,
Normandy Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...
and the Scheldt, overseas Canadian troops were depleted, and during the
Conscription Crisis of 1944 The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis following the introduction of forced military service for men in Canada during World War II. It was similar to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but not as politically damaging. B ...
a one-time levy of approximately 17,000 NRMA men was sent to fight abroad.Granatstein, J. L.; Morton, Desmond (2003). ''Canada and the Two World Wars''. Toronto: Key Porter Books, pp. 309–311. . Many NRMA men deserted after the levy rather than fight abroad. One brigade of NRMA men declared itself on "strike" after the levy. The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known. Military historian
Jack Granatstein Jack Lawrence Granatstein (May 21, 1939) is a Canadian historian who specializes in Canadian political and military history.SeJack Granatsteinfrom The Canadian Encyclopedia Education Born on May 21, 1939, in Toronto, Ontario, into a Jewish fam ...
says the evasion was "widespread". In addition, in 1944 alone approximately 60,000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men, committed to border defense but not to fighting abroad.


Colombia

Colombia maintains a large and well-funded military, often focused on counter-insurgency. There is an obligatory military draft for all young men.Otis, John (13 June 2014).
Draft Evasion Is Alive and Well in Colombia
. Public Radio International, website article. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
Nevertheless, according to Public Radio International, two types of draft evasion are widespread in Colombia; one is prevalent among the relatively well-off, and another is found among the poor. Young men from the middle-to-upper classes "usually" evade the Colombian draft. They do so by obtaining college or medical deferments, or by paying bribes for a "military ID card" certifying they have served – a card that is often requested by potential employers. Young men from poorer circumstances sometimes simply avoid showing up for the draft and attempt to function without a military ID card. Besides facing limited employment prospects, these men are vulnerable to being forced into service through periodic army sweeps of poor neighborhoods.


Eritrea

Eritrea instituted a military draft in 1995. Three years later, it became open-ended; everyone under 50 iccan be enlisted for an indefinite period of time. According to ''
The Economist ''The Economist'' is a British weekly newspaper printed in demitab format and published digitally. It focuses on current affairs, international business, politics, technology, and culture. Based in London, the newspaper is owned by The Eco ...
'', "release can depend on the arbitrary whim of a commander, and usually takes years". It is illegal for Eritreans to leave the country without government permission. Nevertheless, in the mid-2010s around 2,000 Eritreans were leaving every month, "primarily to avoid the draft", according to ''The Economist''. Human rights groups and the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
have also claimed that Eritrea's draft policies are fueling the migration. Most leave for Europe or neighboring countries; in 2015, Eritreans were the fourth largest group illicitly crossing the Mediterranean for Europe. Mothers are usually excused from the Eritrean draft. ''The Economist'' says that, as a result, pregnancies among single women – once a taboo in Eritrea – have increased. A 2018 article in
Bloomberg News Bloomberg News (originally Bloomberg Business News) is an international news agency headquartered in New York City and a division of Bloomberg L.P. Content produced by Bloomberg News is disseminated through Bloomberg Terminals, Bloomberg Tele ...
reported that Eritrea was considering altering some of its military draft policies.


Finland

During World War II, there was no legal way to avoid the draft, and failure to obey was treated as insubordination and/or desertion, punished by execution or jail. Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws, in a practice that was facetiously called serving in the ''käpykaarti'' (Pine Cone Guard) or ''metsäkaarti'' (Forest Guard).Tasala, Markku (2000) ''Metsäkaarti: Kolarin metsäkaartin jatkosota ja rauha''. Oulu, Finland: Pohjoinen. . Approximately 1,500 men failed to show up for the draft at the start of the
Continuation War The Continuation War, also known as the Second Soviet-Finnish War, was a conflict fought by Finland and Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1944, as part of World War II.; sv, fortsättningskriget; german: Fortsetzungskrieg. A ...
(1941–1944, pitting Finland against the Soviet Union), and 32,186 cases of desertion were handled by the courts.Kulomaa, Jukka (1995). ''Käpykaartiin? 1941–1944: sotilaskarkuruus Suomen armeijassa jatkosodan aikana''. Helsinki: Painatuskeskus. . There were numerous reasons for draft evasion and desertion during this period: fear or war-weariness,Kulomaa, Jukka; Nieminen, Jarmo, toim. (2008). ''Teloitettu totuus: kesä 1944''. Helsinki: Ajatus kirjat. . objection to the war as an offensive war, ideological objections or outright support for Communism. Finnish Communists were considered dangerous and could not serve, and were subject to "protective custody" – in practice, detention in a prison for the course of the war – because earlier attempts to conscript them had ended in disaster: one battalion called ''Pärmin pataljoona'' assembled from detained Communists suffered a large-scale defection to the Soviet side. The ''käpykaarti'' (forest-dwelling Pine Cone Guard, mentioned above) was a diverse group including draft evaders, deserters, Communists, and Soviet
desant Parachuting, including also skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point in the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere to the surface of Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent using a parachut ...
s (military skydivers). They lived in small groups, sometimes even in military-style dugouts constructed from logs,Rislakki, Jukka (1986). ''Maan alla: Vakoilua, vastarintaa ja urkintaa Suomessa 1941–1944''. Helsinki: Love Kirjat. . and often maintained a rotation to guard their camps. They received support from sympathizers who could buy from the black market; failing that, they stole provisions to feed themselves. Muisti: Metsäkaartilaiset. TV1 torstaina 20.4.2017
(11 October 2015). Finnish-language website. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
The Finnish Army and police actively searched for them, and if discovered, a firefight often ensued. Hitleriä vastaan sodittiin Suomessa hajanaisesti. Ajankohtainen Kakkonen
(13 February 2013). Finnish-language website. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
The
Finnish Communist Party The Communist Party of Finland ( fi, Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue, SKP; sv, Finlands Kommunistiska Parti) was a communist political party in Finland. The SKP was a section of Comintern and illegal in Finland until 1944. The SKP was banned by ...
was able to operate among the draft evaders. Sixty-three death sentences were handed out to deserters; however, many of them were killed in military or police raids on their camps. Deserters captured near front lines would often be simply returned to the lines, but as the military situation deteriorated towards the end of the war, punishments were harsher: 61 of the death sentences given were in 1944, mostly in June and July during the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, where Finnish forces were forced to retreat.Julkunen, Martti. "Taistelutahto ristipaineissa". In Vehviläinen, Olli, ed. (1982). ''Jatkosodan kujanjuoksu''. Porvoo, Finland: WSOY. . At the conclusion of the war, the Allied Control Commission immediately demanded an amnesty for draft evaders, and they were not further punished. As of 2020, deliberate draft evasion is a rare phenomenon, since absence from a drafting event, in most cases, leads to an immediate search warrant. Evaders are taken by police officers to the draft board, or to the regional military office.


France

In France, the right of all draftees to purchase military exemption – introduced after the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in coup of 18 Brumaire, November 1799. Many of its ...
– was abolished in 1870. One scholar refers to the permissible buy-out as a "bastard form of equality" that bore traces of the Ancien Régime.


Israel

There has always been a military draft in Israel.Neack, Laura (2014). ''The New Foreign Policy: Complex Interventions, Competing Interests'', 3rd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, p. 101. .Simon, Rita J.; Abdel-Moneim, Mohamed Alaa (2011). ''A Handbook of Military Conscription and Composition the World Over''. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, an imprint of Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 133–135. . It is universal for all non-Arab Israeli citizens, men and women alike, and can legally be evaded only on physical or psychological grounds or by strictly Orthodox Jews. The draft has become part of the fabric of Israeli society: according to ''Le Monde'' senior editor Sylvain Cypel, Israel is a place where military service is seen not just as a duty but a "certificate of entry into active life". Yet by the middle of the decade of the 2000s, draft evasion (including outright draft refusal) and desertion had reached all-time highs.Hilliard, Constance (2009). ''Does Israel Have a Future? The Case for a Post-Zionist State''. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books, an imprint of University of Nebraska Press, pp. 68–69. . Fully 5% of young men and 3% of young women were supposedly failing their pre-military psychological tests, both all-time highs. Some popular entertainers, including rock star
Aviv Geffen Aviv Geffen ( he, אביב גפן, born 10 May 1973) is an Israeli rock musician, singer, songwriter and the son of writer and poet Yehonatan Geffen and Nurit Makover, brother of actress Shira Geffen, and an alumnus of Rimon School of Jazz and C ...
, grand-nephew of military hero Moshe Dayan, have been encouraging draft evasion (Geffen publicly said he would commit suicide if he were taken by the military). In 2007 the Israeli government initiated what some called a "shaming campaign", banning young entertainers from holding concerts and making television appearances if they failed to fulfill their military requirement. By 2008 over 3,000 high school students belonged to "Shministim" (Hebrew for twelfth graders), a group of young people claiming to be conscientiously opposed to military service. American actor
Ed Asner Eddie Asner (; November 15, 1929 – August 29, 2021) was an American actor and former president of the Screen Actors Guild. He is best remembered for portraying Lou Grant during the 1970s and early 1980s, on both ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' a ...
has written a column supporting the group. Another group,
New Profile New Profile () is a movement for transforming Israeli society into a "civilian" one ("" – a term recently coined by parts of the Israeli left wing to highlight their view of the present society as "recruited" or "militarized"). It is a volunta ...
, was started by Israeli peace activists to encourage draft refusal.
University of Manchester , mottoeng = Knowledge, Wisdom, Humanity , established = 2004 – University of Manchester Predecessor institutions: 1956 – UMIST (as university college; university 1994) 1904 – Victoria University of Manchester 1880 – Victoria Univ ...
sociologist Yulia Zemilinskaya has interviewed members of New Profile and Shministim, along with members of two groups of Israeli soldiers and reservists who have expressed an unwillingness to engage in missions they disapprove of – Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse.Zemilinskaya, Yulia (December 2010).
Between Militarism and Pacifism: Conscientious Objection and Draft Resistance in Israel
. '' Central European Journal of International and Security Studies'', issue 2:1, pp. 9–35. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Despite commonalities, she found a difference between the draft refusers and the military selective-refusers:
The analysis of these interviews demonstrated that, in their appeal to heIsraeli public, members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse utilized symbolic meanings and codes derived from dominant militarist and nationalist discourses. In contrast, draft-resisters, members of New Profile and Shministim, refusing to manipulate nationalistic and militaristic codes, voice a much more radical and comprehensive critique of the state’s war making plans. Invoking feminist, anti-militarist and pacifist ideologies, they openly challenge and criticize dominant militarist and Zionist discourses. While the majority of members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse choose selective refusal, negotiating conditions of their reserve duty, heanti-militarist, pacifist, and feminist ideological stance of members of New Profile and Shministim leads them to absolutist refusal.


Russia / Soviet Union

According to London-based journalist Elisabeth Braw, writing in '' Foreign Affairs'', draft evasion was "endemic" in the Soviet Union during the
Soviet–Afghan War The Soviet–Afghan War was a protracted armed conflict fought in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. It saw extensive fighting between the Soviet Union and the Afghan mujahideen (alongside smaller groups of anti-Sovie ...
, which ended in 1989.Braw, Elisabeth (9 November 2015).
Russians Dodge a Bullet: How Young Russian Men Avoid the Draft
. '' Foreign Affairs'', Web-based content. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
A declassified
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
report asserts that the Soviet elite routinely bribed its sons' way out of deployment to Afghanistan, or out of military service altogether. In Russia, all men aged 18 through 27 are subject to the military draft. According to a report from the European Parliamentary Research Service, an organ of the
Secretariat of the European Parliament The Secretariat of the European Parliament is the administrative body of the European Parliament headed by a Secretary-General. It is based in the Kirchberg district of Luxembourg City and around the Brussels-Luxembourg Station in Brussels and ...
, in the mid-2010s fully half of the 150,000 young men called up each year were thought to be evading the draft.


Invasion of Ukraine

In September, 2022 during the Russia-Ukraine war over 600,000 mobilization-eligible citizens have left the country to avoid the draft. Reportedly,
Finland Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
,
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...
,
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
, and
Mongolia Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
became a primary, visa-free destination for Russians seeking to avoid president Vladimir Putin’s mobilization order.


South Korea

South Korea maintains mandatory military service. According to the '' Korea JoongAng Daily'', since the early 2000s the country has been rocked by scandals involving celebrities who try to use their fame to evade the draft or receive special treatment from the military.Eun-jee, Park (16 January 2013).
Military Service Mischief a Losing Battle
. '' Korea JoongAng Daily'' (English-language version of Seoul-based South Korean newspaper). Retrieved 29 June 2019.
South Koreans are reportedly so hostile to draft evasion that one South Korean commentator says it is "almost like suicide" for celebrities to engage in it.
Yoo Seung-jun Steve Sueng Jun Yoo (born December 15, 1976), also known as his
The Christian Science Monitor ''The Christian Science Monitor'' (''CSM''), commonly known as ''The Monitor'', is a nonprofit news organization that publishes daily articles in electronic format as well as a weekly print edition. It was founded in 1908 as a daily newspaper ...
'' ran a headline claiming that South Korea had the "most draft dodgers in prison" The article, by veteran correspondent Donald Kirk, explained that South Korea's government did not allow for
conscientious objection A conscientious objector (often shortened to conchie) is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion. The term has also been extended to objecti ...
to war; as a result, 669 mostly religiously motivated South Koreans were said to be in jail for draft evasion in 2013. Only 723 draft evaders were said to be in jail worldwide at that time. According to the '' South China Morning Post'' (Hong Kong), in June 2013 Lee Yeda became the first South Korean to be granted asylum specifically because he evaded the South Korean draft. His asylum claim was granted by France. "
n South N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''. History ...
Korea, it is .. difficult to find a job for anyone who has not completed their national service", Lee was reported to have said. "Refusing to serve means that, in society, your life is terminated."Ryall, Julian (7 December 2013)
Flight or Fight: Conscription Misery in South Korea
. '' South China Morning Post'' (Hong Kong), magazine section. Retrieved 30 June 2019.


Syria

Syria requires men over 18 to serve in the army for two years (except for college graduates, who need serve only 18 months). Draft evasion carries stiff punishments, including fines and years of imprisonment.Bulos, Nabih (9 October 2018).
Syria's Assad Grants Amnesty to Army Deserters and Draft Dodgers
. ''
Los Angeles Times The ''Los Angeles Times'' (abbreviated as ''LA Times'') is a daily newspaper that started publishing in Los Angeles in 1881. Based in the LA-adjacent suburb of El Segundo since 2018, it is the sixth-largest newspaper by circulation in the U ...
'', online. Retrieved 18 October 2018. Identical article appeared in the print edition as "Syria Offers Amnesty to Army Deserters" (10 October 2018), p. A4.
After the Syrian Civil War broke out in 2011, many draft-age men began fleeing the country, sometimes paying thousands of dollars to be smuggled out. Others paid to have their names expunged from the draft rolls. Meanwhile, the government erected billboards exhorting young people to join the army – and set up road checkpoints to capture draft evaders. By 2016, an estimated 70,000 draft evaders had left Syria,Khan, Adnan R. (4 April 2016). "Not Quite Tragic Enough". ''
Maclean's ''Maclean's'', founded in 1905, is a Canadian news magazine reporting on Canadian issues such as politics, pop culture, and current events. Its founder, publisher John Bayne Maclean, established the magazine to provide a uniquely Canadian persp ...
'', pp. 27–28. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
and others remained undetected within its borders. Observers have identified several motives among the Syrian draft evaders. One is fear of dying in that country's civil war. Others include obeying parental wishes and disgust with the government of Bashar al-Assad. , a professor of migration law at VU University Amsterdam, has argued that Syrian draft evaders motivated by a refusal to participate in violations of international law should be given refugee status by other nations. In October 2018, the Syrian government announced an amnesty for draft evaders. However, an officer with Syria's "Reconciliation Ministry" told the ''
Los Angeles Times The ''Los Angeles Times'' (abbreviated as ''LA Times'') is a daily newspaper that started publishing in Los Angeles in 1881. Based in the LA-adjacent suburb of El Segundo since 2018, it is the sixth-largest newspaper by circulation in the U ...
'' that, while punishment would be canceled, military service would still be required. "Now the war is practically at its end, which means enlisting is no longer such a fearful situation", he said. "We expect we'll have very large numbers taking advantage of the amnesty".


Tunisia

Tunisia has had a draft since winning its independence in 1956. Most males are required to submit documents to local officials at age 18 and to begin service two years later. However, according to the Lebanon-based
Carnegie Middle East Center The Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center, previously known as The Carnegie Middle East Center (CMEC) is a think tank and research center dealing with public policy in the Middle East. It was established in Beirut, Lebanon in November 2006 ...
, the Tunisian draft has long been poorly enforced and draft evasion has long been rampant.El-Shimy, Nasser (27 June 2018).
Draft Dodging Nation
. ''Diwan'', online publication of the
Carnegie Middle East Center The Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center, previously known as The Carnegie Middle East Center (CMEC) is a think tank and research center dealing with public policy in the Middle East. It was established in Beirut, Lebanon in November 2006 ...
, Lebanon. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
In order to minimize draft evasion, Tunisia began allowing young men to substitute "civilian" service (such as working on rural development projects) or "national" service (such as working as civil servants) for military service. But that has not helped: the defense minister reported that, in 2017, only 506 young men turned up out of an eligibility pool of more than 31,000.


Ukraine

In 2015, responding to perceived threats from pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine, the Ukrainian military instituted a compulsory draft for males between 20 and 27 years of age. However, according to independent journalist Alec Luhn, writing in '' Foreign Policy'' magazine, a "huge number" of Ukrainians refused to serve. Luhn gives three reasons for this. One was fear of death. Another was that some young Ukrainians were opposed to war in general. A third was that some were unwilling to take up arms against those whom they perceived to be their countrymen.Luhn, Alec (18 February 2015).
The Draft Dodgers of Ukraine
. '' Foreign Policy'', Web-based content. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
The Ukrainian military itself has stated that, during a partial call-up in 2014, over 85,000 men failed to report to their draft offices, and nearly 10,000 of those were eventually declared to be illegal draft evaders.


United States

The United States has employed a draft several times, usually during war but also during the Cold War. Each time the draft has been met with at least some resistance. In ''Sketches of America'' (1818) British author Henry Bradshaw Fearon, who visited the young United States on a fact-finding mission to inform Britons considering emigration, described the
New York Guard The New York Guard (NYG) is the state defense force of New York State, also called The New York State Military Reserve. Originally called the New York State Militia it can trace its lineage back to the American Revolution and the War of 1812. T ...
—although he did not name it—as he found it in New York City in August 1817:
Every male inhabitant can be called out, from the age of 18 to 45, on actual military duty. During a state of peace, there are seven musters annually: the fine for non-attendance is, each time, five dollars. Commanding officers have discretionary power to receive substitutes. An instance of their easiness to be pleased was related to me by Mr. —, a tradesman of this city. He never attends the muster, but, to avoid the fine, sends some of his men, who answer to his name; the same man is not invariably his deputy on parade: in this, Mr. — suits his own convenience; sometimes the collecting clerk, sometimes one of the brewers, at others a drayman: and to finish this military pantomime, a firelock is often dispensed with, for the more convenient wartime weapon—a cudgel. Courts-martial have the power of mitigating the fine, on the assignment of a satisfactory cause of absence, and in cases of poverty. Upon legal exemptions I cannot convey certain information. During a period of three months in the late war, martial law existed, and no substitutes were received. Aliens were not called out.


Civil War

Both the
Union Union commonly refers to: * Trade union, an organization of workers * Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets Union may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * Union (band), an American rock group ** ''Un ...
(the North) and the
Confederate states The Confederate States of America (CSA), commonly referred to as the Confederate States or the Confederacy was an unrecognized breakaway republic in the Southern United States that existed from February 8, 1861, to May 9, 1865. The Confeder ...
(the South) instituted drafts during the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states ...
– and both drafts were often evaded. In the North, evaders were most numerous among poor Irish immigrants. In the South, evaders were most numerous in hill country and in certain other parts of Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia. Resistance to the draft was sometimes violent. In the North, nearly 100 draft enrollment officers were injured in attacks. An anti-draft riot in New York City in 1863 lasted several days and resulted in up to 120 deaths and 2,000 injuries. According to historian David Williams, by 1864 the Southern draft had become virtually unenforceable. Some believe that draft evasion in the South, where manpower was scarcer than in the North, contributed to the Confederate defeat.


World War I

The
Selective Service Act of 1917 The Selective Service Act of 1917 or Selective Draft Act () authorized the United States federal government to raise a national army for service in World War I through conscription. It was envisioned in December 1916 and brought to President ...
was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples and by prohibiting all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the overt resistance that characterized the Civil War. In the United States during
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, the word "
slacker A slacker is someone who habitually avoids work or lacks work ethic. Origin According to different sources, the term ''slacker'' dates back to about 1790 or 1898. "Slacker" gained some recognition during the British Gezira Scheme in the early ...
" was commonly used to describe someone who was not participating in the war effort, especially someone who avoided military service, an equivalent of the later term "draft dodger." Attempts to track down such evaders were called "slacker raids." Under the
Espionage Act of 1917 The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law enacted on June 15, 1917, shortly after the United States entered World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code (War ...
, activists including Eugene V. Debs and Emma Goldman were arrested for speaking out against the draft.Virden, Jenel (2008). ''America and the Wars of the Twentieth Century''. Palgrave Macmillan, p. 35. . Despite such circumstances, draft evasion was substantial. According to one scholar, nearly 11 percent of the draft-eligible population refused to register, or to report for induction;Keene, Jennifer D. (2006). ''World War I''.
Greenwood Publishing Group Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (GPG), also known as ABC-Clio/Greenwood (stylized ABC-CLIO/Greenwood), is an educational and academic publisher (middle school through university level) which is today part of ABC-Clio. Established in 1967 as Gr ...
, p. 37. /
according to another, 12 percent of draftees either failed to report to their training camps or deserted from them. A significant amount of draft evasion took place in the South, in part because many impoverished Southerners lacked documentation and in part because many Southerners recalled the "horrible carnage" of the Civil War. In 2017, historian Michael Kazin concluded that a greater percentage of American men evaded the draft during World War I than during the Vietnam War.


World War II

According to scholar Anna Wittmann, about 72,000 young Americans applied for conscientious objector (CO) status during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, and many of their applications were rejected.Wittmann (2016), cited above, p. 116. Some COs chose to serve as noncombatants in the military, others chose jail, and a third group – taking a position in between – chose to enter a specially organized domestic
Civilian Public Service The Civilian Public Service (CPS) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II. From 1941 to 1947, nearly 12,000 draftees, willing to serve their ...
.


Korean War

The
Korean War , date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, generated 80,000 cases of alleged draft evasion.


Vietnam War

The
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
(1955–1975) was controversial in the U.S. and was accompanied by a significant amount of draft evasion among young Americans, with many managing to remain in the U.S. by various means and some eventually leaving for Canada or elsewhere.


= Avoidance and resistance at home

= Significant draft avoidance was taking place even before the U.S. became heavily involved in the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
. The large cohort of
Baby Boomers Baby boomers, often shortened to boomers, are the Western demographic cohort following the Silent Generation and preceding Generation X. The generation is often defined as people born from 1946 to 1964, during the mid-20th century baby boom. ...
allowed for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college and graduate students. According to
peace studies Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. ...
scholar David Cortright, ''more than half'' of the 27 million men eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War were deferred, exempted, or disqualified. The number of draft resisters was also significant. According to Cortright, "Distinct from the millions who voidedthe draft were the many thousands who resisted the conscription system and actively opposed the war". The head of U.S. President
Richard Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and was ...
's task force on the all-volunteer military reported in 1970 that the number of resisters was "expanding at an alarming rate" and that the government was "almost powerless to apprehend and prosecute them". It is now known that, during the Vietnam era, approximately 570,000 young men were classified as draft offenders, and approximately 210,000 were formally accused of draft violations; however, only 8,750 were convicted and only 3,250 were jailed. Some draft eligible men publicly burned their draft cards, but the Justice Department brought charges against only 50, of whom 40 were convicted.Baskir and Strauss (1987), cited above. As U.S. troop strength in Vietnam increased, some young men sought to evade the draft by pro-actively enlisting in military forces that were unlikely to see combat in Vietnam. For example, conscription scholars Lawrence Baskir and William Strauss say that the
Coast Guard A coast guard or coastguard is a maritime security organization of a particular country. The term embraces wide range of responsibilities in different countries, from being a heavily armed military force with customs and security duties to ...
may have served that purpose for some,Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p. 54. though they also point out that Coast Guardsmen had to maintain readiness for combat in Vietnam, and that some Coast Guardsmen eventually served and were killed there. Similarly, the Vietnam-era
National Guard National Guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. Nat ...
was seen by some as an avenue for avoiding combat in Vietnam,Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p. 51 although that too was less than foolproof: about 15,000 National Guardsmen were sent to Vietnam before the war began winding down. Other young men sought to evade the draft by avoiding or resisting any military commitment. In this they were bolstered by certain
countercultural A counterculture is a culture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, sometimes diametrically opposed to mainstream cultural mores.Eric Donald Hirsch. ''The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy''. Hou ...
figures. " Draft Dodger Rag", a 1965 song by Phil Ochs, employed satire to provide a how-to list of available deferments:
ruptured spleen A splenic injury, which includes a ruptured spleen, is any injury to the spleen. The rupture of a normal spleen can be caused by trauma, such as a traffic collision. Signs and symptoms In minor injuries with little bleeding, there may be abdomin ...
, poor
eyesight Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflect ...
, flat feet,
asthma Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, co ...
, and many more. Folksinger
Arlo Guthrie Arlo Davy Guthrie (born July 10, 1947) is an American folk singer-songwriter. He is known for singing songs of protest against social injustice, and storytelling while performing songs, following the tradition of his father, Woody Guthrie. Gu ...
lampooned the paradox of seeking a deferment by acting crazy in his song "
Alice's Restaurant "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", commonly known as "Alice's Restaurant", is a satirical talking blues song by singer-songwriter Arlo Guthrie, released as the title track to his 1967 debut album '' Alice's Restaurant''. The song is a deadpan prote ...
": "I said, 'I wanna kill! Kill! Eat dead burnt bodies!' and the Sergeant said, 'You're our boy'!" The book '' 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft'' was co-authored by
Tuli Kupferberg Naphtali "Tuli" Kupferberg (September 28, 1923 – July 12, 2010) was an American counterculture poet, author, singer, cartoonist, publisher, and co-founder of the rock band The Fugs. Biography Naphtali Kupferberg was born into a Jewish, Yi ...
, a member of the band The Fugs. It espoused such methods as arriving at the draft board in diapers. Kupferberg, Tuli; Bashlow, Robert (1968). ''1001 Ways to Beat the Draft''. New York: Oliver Layton Press. Originally New York: Grove Press, 1967. The book focuses on the United States in the 1960s. Neither edition has an ISBN number. Another text pertinent to draft-age men was
Jules Feiffer Jules Ralph Feiffer (born January 26, 1929)''Comics Buyer's Guide'' #1650; February 2009; Page 107 is an American cartoonist and author, who was considered the most widely read satirist in the country. He won the Pulitzer Prize in 1986 as North- ...
's cartoon novella from the 1950s, ''Munro'', later a short film, in which a four-year-old boy is drafted by mistake. Draft counseling groups were another source of support for potential draft evaders. Many such groups were active during the war. Some were connected to national groups, such as the American Friends Service Committee and
Students for a Democratic Society Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a national student activist organization in the United States during the 1960s, and was one of the principal representations of the New Left. Disdaining permanent leaders, hierarchical relationships ...
; others were ad hoc campus or community groups. Satin, Mark (2017, orig. 1968). ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada''. Toronto: House of Anansi Press "A List" reprint ed., Chap. 24 (listing the names ad addresses of 100 U.S. anti-draft groups from 38 states as of January 1968). . Many specially trained individuals worked as counselors for such groups. Alongside the draft counseling groups, a substantial draft resistance movement emerged.Foley (2003), cited above, Introduction and Chaps. 1–6. Students for a Democratic Society sought to play a major role in it, as did the
War Resisters League The War Resisters League (WRL) is the oldest secular pacifist organization in the United States. History Founded in 1923 by men and women who had opposed World War I, it is a section of the London-based War Resisters' International. It continues ...
, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's "National Black Anti-War Anti-Draft Union" and other groups. Many say that the draft resistance movement was spearheaded by an organization called The Resistance. Ferber, Michael; Lynd, Staughton (1971). ''The Resistance''. Boston: Beacon Press. . It was founded by David Harris and others in the San Francisco Bay Area in March 1967, and quickly spread nationally.Ashbolt, Anthony (2013). ''A Cultural History of the Radical Sixties in the San Francisco Bay Area''. New York: Routledge, pp. 127–128. . The insignia of the organization was the Greek letter
omega Omega (; capital: Ω, lowercase: ω; Ancient Greek ὦ, later ὦ μέγα, Modern Greek ωμέγα) is the twenty-fourth and final letter in the Greek alphabet. In the Greek numeric system/ isopsephy ( gematria), it has a value of 800. The ...
, Ω, the symbol for ohms—the unit of electrical resistance. Members of The Resistance publicly burned their draft cards or refused to register for the draft. Other members deposited their cards into boxes on selected dates and then mailed them to the government. They were then drafted, refused to be inducted, and fought their cases in the federal courts. These draft resisters hoped that their public civil disobedience would help to bring the war and the draft to an end. Many young men went to federal prison as part of this movement. According to Cortright, the draft resistance movement was the leading edge of the
anti-war movement An anti-war movement (also ''antiwar'') is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term anti-war can also refer to p ...
in 1967 and 1968. After the war, some of the draft evaders who stayed in the U.S. wrote memoirs. These included David Harris's '' Dreams Die Hard'' (1982), Klein, Joe (13 June 1982).
A Protégé's Story
. '' The New York Times Book Review'', p. 3. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
David Miller's ''I Didn't Know God Made Honky Tonk Communists'' (2001),Friedman, Sari (1 February 2002).
Stranger than Fiction
. ''
Berkeley Daily Planet The ''Berkeley Daily Planet'' was a free weekly newspaper published in Berkeley, California, which continues today as an internet-based news publication. The ''Daily Planet'' is politically progressive, and offers endorsements of progressive a ...
'', p. 1. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
Jerry Elmer's ''Felon for Peace'' (2005), Kehler, Randy (September 2005). "Felon for Peace: The Memoir of a Vietnam-Era Draft Resister". ''Fellowship'', vol. 71, no. 9–10, p. 27. A publication of the
Fellowship of Reconciliation The Fellowship of Reconciliation (FoR or FOR) is the name used by a number of religious nonviolent organizations, particularly in English-speaking countries. They are linked by affiliation to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR). ...
.
and Bruce Dancis's ''Resister'' (2014).Joseph, Paul (April 2015). "Resister: A Story of Peace and Prison During the Vietnam War". '' Peace & Change'', vol. 40, issue no. 2, pp. 272–276. A joint publication of the Peace History Society and the Peace and Justice Studies Association.Polner, Murray (18 May 2014).
Review of Bruce Dancis's 'Resister'
.
History News Network History News Network (HNN) at George Washington University is a platform for historians writing about current events. History History News Network (HNN) is a non-profit corporation registered in Washington DC. HNN was founded by Richard Shenkman ...
, an electronic platform at
George Washington University The George Washington University (GW or GWU) is a Private university, private University charter#Federal, federally chartered research university in Washington, D.C. Chartered in 1821 by the United States Congress, GWU is the largest Higher educat ...
. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
Harris was an anti-draft organizer who went to jail for his beliefs (and was briefly married to folk singer Joan Baez), Miller was the first Vietnam War refuser to publicly burn his draft card (and later became partner to spiritual teacher
Starhawk Starhawk (born Miriam Simos on June 17, 1951) is an American feminist and author. She is known as a theorist of feminist Neopaganism and ecofeminism. In 2013, she was listed in Watkins' ''Mind Body Spirit'' magazine as one of the 100 Most Spir ...
), Elmer refused to register for the draft and destroyed draft board files in several locations, and Dancis led the largest chapter of
Students for a Democratic Society Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a national student activist organization in the United States during the 1960s, and was one of the principal representations of the New Left. Disdaining permanent leaders, hierarchical relationships ...
(the one at
Cornell University Cornell University is a private statutory land-grant research university based in Ithaca, New York. It is a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1865 by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White, Cornell was founded with the intention to tea ...
) before being jailed for publicly shredding his draft card and returning it to his draft board. Harris in particular expresses serious second thoughts about aspects of the movement he was part of.


= Emigration to Canada and elsewhere

= Canadian historian Jessica Squires emphasizes that the number of U.S. draft evaders coming to Canada was "only a fraction" of those who resisted the Vietnam War. According to a 1978 book by former members of President Gerald Ford's Clemency Board, 210,000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30,000 left the country.Baskir and Strauss (1978), cited above, p. 169. More recently,
peace studies Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. ...
scholar David Cortright estimated that 60,000 to 100,000 left the U.S., mainly for Canada or Sweden.Cortright, David (2008). ''Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 164–165. . Others scattered elsewhere; for example, historian Frank Kusch mentions Mexico, scholar Anna Wittmann mentions Britain, and journalist
Jan Wong Jan Wong (; born August 15, 1952) is a Canadian academic, journalist, and writer. Wong worked for ''The Globe and Mail'', serving as Beijing correspondent from 1988 to 1994, when she returned to write from Canada. She is the daughter of Montreal ...
describes one draft evader who sympathized with
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
's China and found refuge there. Draft evader Ken Kiask spent eight years traveling continuously across the Global South before returning to the U.S. The number of Vietnam-era draft evaders leaving for Canada is hotly contested; an entire book, by scholar Joseph Jones, has been written on that subject. In 2017,
University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public university, public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park (Toronto), Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 ...
professor Robert McGill cited estimates by four scholars, including Jones, ranging from a floor of 30,000 to a ceiling of 100,000, depending in part on who is being counted as a draft evader. Though the presence of U.S. draft evaders and deserters in Canada was initially controversial, the Canadian government eventually chose to welcome them. Draft evasion was not a criminal offense under Canadian law. The issue of deserters was more complex. Desertion from the U.S. military was not on the list of crimes for which a person could be extradited under the extradition treaty between Canada and the U.S.; however, desertion was a crime in Canada, and the Canadian military strongly opposed condoning it. In the end, the Canadian government maintained the right to prosecute these deserters, but in practice left them alone and instructed border guards not to ask questions relating to the issue.Keung, Nicholas (20 August 2010).
Iraq War Resisters Meet Cool Reception in Canada
" ''Toronto Star.'' Retrieved 14 August 2012.
In Canada, many American Vietnam War evaders received pre-emigration counseling and post-emigration assistance from locally based groups. Typically these consisted of American emigrants and Canadian supporters. The largest were the Montreal Council to Aid War Resisters, the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme, and the Vancouver Committee to Aid American War Objectors. Journalists often noted their effectiveness. The ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'', published jointly by the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme and the House of Anansi Press, sold nearly 100,000 copies, MacSkimming, Roy (26 August 2017).
Review: Mark Satin's Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada Is Just as Timely as Ever
. ''The Globe and Mail'', p. R12 (stating that 65,000 had been sold by Canadian publishers and another 30,000 had been reproduced in whole or in part by U.S. anti-war entities). Online text dated 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
and one sociologist found that the ''Manual'' had been read by over 55% of his data sample of U.S. Vietnam War emigrants either before or after they arrived in Canada. In addition to the counseling groups (and at least formally separate from them) was a Toronto-based political organization, the Union of American Exiles, better known as "Amex." It sought to speak for American draft evaders and deserters in Canada. For example, it lobbied and campaigned for universal, unconditional amnesty, and hosted an international conference in 1974 opposing anything short of that. Those who went abroad faced imprisonment or forced military service if they returned home. In September 1974, President
Gerald R. Ford Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. ( ; born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913December 26, 2006) was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. He was the only president never to have been elected ...
offered an amnesty program for draft dodgers that required them to work in alternative service occupations for periods of six to 24 months. In 1977, one day after his inauguration, President Jimmy Carter fulfilled a campaign promise by offering pardons to anyone who had evaded the draft and requested one. It antagonized critics on both sides, with the right complaining that those pardoned paid no penalty and the left complaining that requesting a pardon required the admission of a crime. It remains a matter of debate whether emigration to Canada and elsewhere during the Vietnam War was an effective, or even a genuine, war resistance strategy. Scholar Michael Foley argues that it was not only relatively ineffective, but that it served to siphon off disaffected young Americans from the larger struggle. Activists Rennie Davis and Tom Hayden reportedly held similar views. By contrast, authors John Hagan and Roger N. Williams recognize the American emigrants as "war resisters" in the subtitles of their books about the emigrants, and ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'' author Mark Satin contended that public awareness of tens of thousands of young Americans leaving for Canada would – and eventually did – help end the war. Some draft evaders returned to the U.S. from Canada after the 1977 pardon, but according to sociologist John Hagan, about half of them stayed on. This young and mostly educated population expanded Canada's arts and academic scenes, and helped push Canadian politics further to the left, though some Canadians, including some principled nationalists, found their presence or impact troubling. American draft evaders who left for Canada and became prominent there include author William Gibson, politician Jim Green, gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks, attorney
Jeffry House Jeffry A. House (born December 29, 1946) is a retired lawyer who practiced in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He is best known for his efforts on behalf and representation of fugitive American soldiers and Indigenous protesters. American soldiers ...
, author Keith Maillard, playwright John Murrell, television personality Eric Nagler, film critic
Jay Scott Jeffrey Scott Beaven (October 4, 1949 – July 30, 1993), known professionally by his pen name Jay Scott, was a Canadian film critic."Critic Jay Scott, 43 among world's best". ''Toronto Star'', July 31, 1993. Early life Scott was born in Lincol ...
, and musician
Jesse Winchester James Ridout "Jesse" Winchester Jr. (May 17, 1944 – April 11, 2014) was an American-Canadian musician and songwriter. He was born and raised in the southern United States. Opposed to the Vietnam War, he moved to Canada in 1967 to avoid b ...
. Other draft evaders from the Vietnam era remain in Sweden and elsewhere. Two academic literary critics have written at length about autobiographical novels by draft evaders who went to Canada – Rachel Adams in the ''
Yale Journal of Criticism The ''Yale Journal of Criticism'' was an academic journal published by the Johns Hopkins University Press which covered all humanities disciplines. It was named best new journal by the Conference of Editors of Learned Journals in 1989 and ceased ...
''Adams, Rachel (Fall 2005).
'Going to Canada': The Politics and Poetics of Northern Exodus
. ''Yale Journal of Criticism'', vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 417–425 ("The Things They Wrote" section). Reproduced at the Project MUSE database. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
and Robert McGill in a book from McGill-Queen's University Press.McGill (2017), cited above, pp. 172–181 ("The Alternative America in Draft-Dodger Novels" sub-chapter). Both critics discuss Morton Redner's ''Getting Out'' (1971) and Mark Satin's ''Confessions of a Young Exile'' (1976), and Adams also discusses Allen Morgan's ''Dropping Out in 3/4 Time'' (1972) and Daniel Peters's ''Border Crossing'' (1978). All these books portray their protagonists' views, motives, activities, and relationships in detail. Adams says they contain some surprises:
It is to be expected that the draft dodgers denounce the state as an oppressive bureaucracy, using the vernacular of the time to rail against "the machine" and "the system." What is more surprising is their general resistance to mass movements, a sentiment that contradicts the association of the draft dodger with sixties protest found in more recent work by
cott Primo Water Corporation (formerly Cott Corporation) is an American-Canadian water company offering multi-gallon bottled water, water dispensers, self-service refill water machines, and water filtration appliances. The company is headquartered in ...
Turow or ordecaiRichler. In contrast to stereotypes, the draft dodger in these narratives is neither an unthinking follower of movement ideology nor a radical who attempts to convert others to his cause. ...
nother surprise is that the dodgers Amalie Emmy NoetherEmmy is the '' Rufname'', the second of two official given names, intended for daily use. Cf. for example the résumé submitted by Noether to Erlangen University in 1907 (Erlangen University archive, ''Promotionsakt Emmy Noeth ...
have little interest in romantic love. Their libidinal hyperactivity accords with erbertMarcuse's belief in the liberatory power of eros. They are far less worried about whether particular relationships will survive the flight to Canada than about the gratification of their immediate sexual urges.
Later memoirs by Vietnam-era draft evaders who went to Canada include Donald Simons's ''I Refuse'' (1992), George Fetherling's ''Travels by Night'' (1994), and
Mark Frutkin Mark Frutkin (born January 2, 1948) is a Canadian novelist and poet. He has published ten books of fiction, three books of poetry, as well as two works of non-fiction and a book of essays. In 2022, his novel ''The Artist and the Assassin'' won the ...
's ''Erratic North'' (2008).


= Prominent people arguably manipulating the system

= For many decades after the Vietnam War ended, prominent Americans were being accused of having manipulated the draft system to their advantage. According to a column by E. J. Dionne in ''
The Washington Post ''The Washington Post'' (also known as the ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'') is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C. It is the most widely circulated newspaper within the Washington metropolitan area and has a large nati ...
'', by 2006 politicians whom opponents had accused of improperly avoiding the draft included George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, and
Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton ( né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and agai ...
. In a 1970s ''
High Times ''High Times'' is an American monthly magazine (and cannabis brand) that advocates the legalization of cannabis as well as other counterculture ideas. The magazine was founded in 1974 by Tom Forcade.Danko, Danny"Norml Founder Retires – Exha ...
'' article, American singer-songwriter Ted Nugent stated that he took
crystal meth Methamphetamine (contracted from ) is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational drug and less commonly as a second-line treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity. Methamphe ...
, and urinated and defecated in his pants before his physical, in order to avoid being drafted into the Vietnam War. Sirius, R.U. (2009). ''Everybody Must Get Stoned: Rock Stars on Drugs''. Kensington Publishing Corp., pp. 47–48. . In a 1990 interview with a large Detroit newspaper, Nugent made similar statements. Actor and comedian Chevy Chase also misled his draft board. In 1989, approximately two decades after the fact, Chase revealed on a television talk show that he avoided the Vietnam War by making several false claims to his draft board, including that he harbored homosexual tendencies. He added he was "not very proud" of having done that. Several politically charged books subsequently discussed Chase's behavior. Radio talk show host
Rush Limbaugh Rush Hudson Limbaugh III ( ; January 12, 1951 – February 17, 2021) was an American conservative political commentator who was the host of '' The Rush Limbaugh Show'', which first aired in 1984 and was nationally syndicated on AM and FM r ...
avoided the Vietnam draft because of anal
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s. In a 2011 book critical of Limbaugh, journalist John K. Wilson accused Limbaugh making "hyperbolic attacks on foreign policy". Former Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney's deferment has been questioned. The LDS Church eventually agreed to cap the number of missionary deferments it sought for members in any one region. Kranish, Michael (24 June 2007).
Mormon Church Obtained Vietnam Draft Deferrals for Romney, Other Missionaries
. ''
The Boston Globe ''The Boston Globe'' is an American daily newspaper founded and based in Boston, Massachusetts. The newspaper has won a total of 27 Pulitzer Prizes, and has a total circulation of close to 300,000 print and digital subscribers. ''The Boston Glob ...
'', web exclusive, now at Boston.com regional website. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
After Romney dropped out of Stanford University and was about to lose his student deferment, he decided to become a missionary; and the LDS Church in his home state of Michigan chose to give him one of that state's missionary deferments. In a '' Salon'' article from 2007, journalist
Joe Conason Joe Conason (born January 25, 1954) is an American journalist, author and liberal political commentator. He is the founder and editor-in-chief of ''The National Memo'', a daily political newsletter and website that features breaking news and comm ...
noted that Romney's father had been governor of Michigan at the time. Conason, Joe (20 July 2007).
Rudy and Romney: Artful Dodgers
. Salon online magazine. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
Attention has also been paid to independent Senator Bernie Sanders's failure to serve. In an article in ''
The Atlantic ''The Atlantic'' is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher. It features articles in the fields of politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science. It was founded in 1857 in Boston, ...
'', it was reported that, after graduating from the University of Chicago in 1964, and moving back to New York City, the future candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination applied for conscientious objector status – even though as Sanders acknowledged to the reporter, he was not religious. Banks, Russell (5 October 2015).
Bernie Sanders, the Socialist Mayor
. ''
The Atlantic ''The Atlantic'' is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher. It features articles in the fields of politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science. It was founded in 1857 in Boston, ...
'', online; third section, 10th paragraph. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
(Sanders was opposed to the Vietnam War. At the time, however, CO status was granted entirely on the basis of religious opposition to all war.) Sanders's CO status was denied. Nevertheless, a "lengthy series of hearings, an FBI investigation and numerous postponements and delays" took him to age 26 at which point he was no longer eligible for the draft. In a 2015 book critical of Sanders, journalist Harry Jaffe revisited that portion of the ''Atlantic'' article, emphasizing that by the time Sanders's "numerous hearings" had run their course he was "too old to be drafted".
Donald Trump Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who served as the 45th president of the United States from 2017 to 2021. Trump graduated from the Wharton School of the University of P ...
, who served as
President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States ...
from 2017 to 2021, graduated from college in the spring of 1968, and became eligible for military service. Trump however, due to a personal friend of his father's, a medical doctor, was granted a diagnosis of
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in his heels. The diagnosis allowed Trump to receive a medical deferment, and the future President was able to avoid serving his country in the military during the Vietnam War.Eder, Steve; Philipps, Dave (1 August 2016).
Donald Trump's Draft Deferments: Four for College, One for Bad Feet
. ''The New York Times'', p. A1. Print edition has a different date and headline. Retrieved 17 January 2018.


=Pardons

= In 1977, President Jimmy Carter issued a pardon giving unconditional amnesty to Vietnam war draft resisters.


Larger issues

The phenomenon of draft evasion has raised several major issues among scholars and others.


Effectiveness

One issue is the effectiveness of the various kinds of draft evasion practices with regard to ending a military draft or stopping a war. Historian Michael S. Foley sees many draft evasion practices as merely personally beneficial. In his view, only public anti-draft activity, consciously and collectively engaged in, is relevant to stopping a draft or a war. By contrast, sociologist
Todd Gitlin Todd Alan Gitlin (January 6, 1943 – February 5, 2022) was an American sociologist, political activist and writer, novelist, and cultural commentator. He wrote about the mass media, politics, intellectual life and the arts, for both popular an ...
is more generous in his assessment of the effectiveness of the entire gamut of draft evasion practices. Political scientist James C. Scott, although speaking more theoretically, makes a similar point, arguing that the accumulation of thousands upon thousands of "petty" and obscure acts of private resistance can trigger political change.Scott, James C. (1990). ''Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p. 192. .


Social class

Another issue is how best to understand young people's responses to a military call-up. According to historian Charles DeBenedetti, some Vietnam War opponents chose to evaluate people's responses to the war largely in terms of their willingness to take personal responsibility to resist evil, a standard prompted by the Nuremberg doctrine. The ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'' urged its readers to make their draft decision with Nuremberg in mind. By contrast, prominent journalist James Fallows is convinced that social class (rather than conscience or political conviction) was the dominant factor in determining who would fight in the war and who would evade their obligation to do so. Fallows writes of the shame he felt – and continued to feel – after he realized that his successful attempt at draft evasion (he brought his body weight below the minimum, and lied about his mental health), an attempt he prepared for with the help of sophisticated draft counselors and classmates at Harvard, meant that working-class kids from Boston would be going to Vietnam in his stead. He referred to this outcome as a matter of class discrimination and passionately argued against it. (It should be added that Fallows indicates that he might have felt differently about his behavior had he chosen public draft resistance, jail, or exile.) Historian
Stanley Karnow Stanley Abram Karnow (February 4, 1925 – January 27, 2013) was an American journalist and historian. He is best known for his writings on the Vietnam War. Education and career After serving with the United States Army Air Forces in the China B ...
has noted that, during the Vietnam War, student deferments themselves helped preserve class privilege: "
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Johnson generously deferred U.S. college students from the draft to avoid alienating the American middle class". Karnow, Stanley (1997, orig. 1983). ''Vietnam: A History''. New York: Penguin Books, 2nd ed., p. 358. .


Democracy

Historian
Howard Zinn Howard Zinn (August 24, 1922January 27, 2010) was an American historian, playwright, philosopher, socialist thinker and World War II veteran. He was chair of the history and social sciences department at Spelman College, and a politica ...
and political activist Tom Hayden saw at least some kinds of draft evasion as a positive expression of democracy. By contrast, historian and classical studies scholar Mathew R. Christ says that, in ancient democratic Athens, where draft evasion was ongoing, many of the popular tragic playwrights were deeply concerned about the corrosive effects of draft evasion on democracy and community.Christ (2006), cited above, pp. 65–87 ("Conscription and Draft Evasion through a Tragic Lens" section). According to Christ, while many of these playwrights were sensitive to the moral dilemmas of war and the imperfections of Athenian democracy, most touted "the ethical imperative that a man should support his friends and community. In serving the community, the individual does ... what is right and honorable".Christ (2006), cited above, p. 86.


See also

* Australian Freedom League – opposed conscription in Australia during World War I *
Canada and the Vietnam War Canada did not officially participate in the Vietnam War. However, it contributed to peacekeeping forces in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords. Privately, some Canadians contributed to the war effort. Canadian corporations sold wa ...
– includes discussion of U.S. draft evaders *
Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (CCCO) was a United States nonprofit organization dedicated to helping people avoid or resist military conscription or seek discharge after voluntary enlistment. It was active in supporting co ...
– provided information and counseling to U.S. war resisters and draft evaders from 1948 to 2011 * Desertion – discusses military desertion generally and in several individual nations *
End Conscription Campaign The End Conscription Campaign was an anti-apartheid organisation allied to the United Democratic Front and composed of conscientious objectors and their supporters in South Africa. It was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of all white ...
– opposed conscription of white South Africans in
Apartheid Apartheid (, especially South African English: , ; , "aparthood") was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. Apartheid was ...
-era South Africa * No-Conscription Fellowship – opposed British conscription during World War I * No Conscription League – co-founded by Emma Goldman in response to the U.S. draft during World War I * Pardon – legal relief sometimes offered to draft evaders * Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) - Overview of resistance by Israelis to participate in mandatory military service for the IDF. *
War resister A war resister is a person who resists war. The term can mean several things: resisting participation in all war, or a specific war, either before or after enlisting in, being inducted into, or being conscripted into a military force. History, e ...
– discusses variety of types of war refusers, including draft refusers


Notes


References


Further reading

* Bernstein, Iver. ''The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War''. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books / University of Nebraska Press. 2010. * Colhoun, Jack.
War Resisters in Exile: The Memoirs of Amex-Canada
. ''Amex-Canada'' magazine, vol. 6, no. 2 (issue no. 47), pp. 11–78. Account of the political organization created by U.S. draft evaders in Canada. Reproduced at Vancouver Community Network website. Retrieved 29 November 2017. Article originally November–December 1977. * Conway, Daniel. ''Masculinisation, Militarisation, and the End Conscription Campaign: War Resistance in Apartheid South Africa''. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. 2012. * Foley, Michael S. ''Confronting the War Machine: Draft Resistance during the Vietnam War''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2003. * Gottlieb, Sherry Gershon. ''Hell No, We Won't Go: Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War''. New York: Viking Press. 1991. * Hagan, John. ''Northern Passage: American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada''. Boston: Harvard University Press. 2001. * Kasinsky, Renee. ''Refugees from Militarism: Draft-Age Americans in Canada''. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. 1976. * Kohn, Stephen M. ''Jailed for Peace: The History of American Draft Law Violators, 1658–1985''. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1987. *Peterson, Carl L. ''Avoidance and Evasion of Military Service: An American History 1626-1973''. San Francisco: International Scholars Publications. 1998. * Satin, Mark. ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada''. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, "A List" reprint edition. New introduction by Canadian historian James Laxer, new afterword by Satin ("Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s: The Reality Behind the Romance"). 2017. * Williams, Roger Neville. ''The New Exiles: American War Resisters in Canada.'' New York: Liveright. 1970.


External links

* How To Beat the Draft Board – a "tutorial" published in 2017 on Wikibooks, a project of the
Wikimedia Foundation The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., or Wikimedia for short and abbreviated as WMF, is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization headquartered in San Francisco, California and registered as a charitable foundation under local laws. Best know ...

Hyper Texts
– provides information on the Israeli anti-draft group Shministim, mentioned above
National Resistance Committee
– provides information to U.S. citizens who do not wish to register or otherwise cooperate with the draft. Sponsored by
War Resisters League The War Resisters League (WRL) is the oldest secular pacifist organization in the United States. History Founded in 1923 by men and women who had opposed World War I, it is a section of the London-based War Resisters' International. It continues ...
, mentioned above.
New Profile
– English-language website of New Profile, Israeli anti-draft group mentioned above
Selective Service System
– official site of the government agency that registers young male U.S. citizens for the military draft
Vietnam War: Draft Resistance
– historical site for Draft Resistance Seattle, example of the locally based U.S. anti-draft groups mentioned above

– annotated guide to texts and websites from the 1960s to the present. Compiled by scholar Joseph Jones, mentioned above.

– based in Britain. Monitors conscription and conscientious objection in nations around the world. {{DEFAULTSORT:Draft Dodger