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The Korean independence movement was a military and diplomatic campaign to achieve the independence of
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
from
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Korea's domestic resistance peaked in the March 1st Movement of 1919, which was crushed and sent Korean leaders to flee into
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. In China, Korean independence activists built ties with the National Government of the Republic of China which supported the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (KPG), as a
government in exile A government in exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group that claims to be a country or semi-sovereign state's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile us ...
. At the same time, the Korean Liberation Army, which operated under the Chinese
National Military Council The Military Affairs Commission (MAC) of the National Government, chaired by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, directed the command of the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China. ...
and then the KPG, led attacks against Japan. After the outbreak of the
Pacific War The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia–Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and Oceania. It was geographically the largest theater of the war, including the vast ...
in 1941, China became one of the
Allies of World War II The Allies, formally referred to as the United Nations from 1942, were an international military coalition formed during the Second World War (1939–1945) to oppose the Axis powers, led by Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy. ...
. In the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...
, China attempted to use this influence to assert Allied recognition of the KPG. However, the United States was skeptical of Korean unity and readiness for independence, preferring an international trusteeship-like solution for the
Korean Peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
. Although China achieved agreement by the Allies on eventual Korean independence in the Cairo Declaration of 1943, continued disagreement and ambiguity about the postwar Korean government lasted until the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 created a ''
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
''
division of Korea The division of Korea began with the defeat of Empire of Japan, Japan in World War II. During the war, the Allies of World War II, Allied leaders considered the question of Korea's future after Japan's surrender in the war. The leaders reached ...
into Soviet and American zones, eventually leading to the
Korean War , date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
(1950-1953). August 15, the date of the
Surrender of Japan The surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 15 August and formally signed on 2 September 1945, bringing the war's hostilities to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy ...
in 1945, is an annual holiday called ''
Gwangbokjeol The National Liberation Day of Korea is a holiday celebrated annually on 15 August in both South and North Korea. It commemorates Victory over Japan Day, when the United States and the Soviet Union liberated Korea from 35 years of Japanese ...
'' ("Restoration of Light Day") in
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
, and ''Chogukhaebangŭi nal'' ("Fatherland Liberation Day") in
North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
.


History


Before Japanese rule

The last independent Korean monarchy, the
Joseon Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
dynasty, lasted over 500 years (from 1392 to 1910), both as the Joseon Kingdom and later as the Empire of Korea. Its international status and policies were conducted primarily through careful diplomatic maneuvering with the power ''en vogue'' in China (during this period of time dynastic control of China saw the end of the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
and the rise and fall of both the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
and the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
), though other interactions with other international entities were not absent. Through this maneuvering and a dedicated adherence to strict Neo-Confucianist foreign and domestic policies, Joseon Korea retained control over its internal affairs and relative international autonomy though technically a suzerain of the ruling Chinese dynasties for most of this period under the
Chinese tributary system The tributary system of China (), or Cefeng system () was a network of loose international relations focused on China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's predominant role in East Asia. It involved multiple relati ...
. These policies were effective in maintaining Korea's relative independence and domestic autonomy in spite of a number of regional upheavals and a number of invasions (including the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592–98 as well as the
First First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1). First or 1st may also refer to: *World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement Arts and media Music * 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and rec ...
and Second Manchu invasions of Korea). However, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the increase of
Western imperialism Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
, the weakening of China also made Korea vulnerable to foreign maneuvering and encroachment, both as a target in and of itself and as a stepping-stone to the "larger prize" of China. This period (roughly from 1870 until annexation by Japan in 1910) was marked in Korea by major upheavals, many intrigues, the inability of Joseon Korea and the later Empire of Korea to right itself amidst all of the maneuvering around it by foreign powers, numerous revolts, and other indicators of a turbulent time. By the end of the
First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
in 1895 it was evident internationally that China could no longer protect its foreign interests, much less its own, against its opponents, and that its attempts to modernize its military and institutions were unsuccessful. Among other things, the
Treaty of Shimonoseki The , also known as the Treaty of Maguan () in China and in the period before and during World War II in Japan, was a treaty signed at the , Shimonoseki, Japan on April 17, 1895, between the Empire of Japan and Qing China, ending the Firs ...
that ended the
First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
in 1895 stipulated that China would relinquish suzerainty and influence over Korea, recognize Korea's full independence and autonomy, and end the tribute system which had linked China and Korea for many centuries. In practical reality, this stipulation implied the handover of primary outside influence in Korea from China to Japan, as Japanese forces had occupied positions in the
Korean Peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
during the course of the war. This paved the way for the Japanese government to tighten its influence on Korea without official Chinese intervention. Korea was declared to be an
empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
in 1897 to put King Gojong on equal legal footing with his neighboring sovereigns and to fully sever Korea's superficial ties of suzerainty to China, however In 1905 the Eulsa Treaty made the Empire of Korea a
protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over m ...
of Japan. In 1907, the
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1907. Negotiations were concluded on July 24, 1907.Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921-1922. (1922 ...
stipulated that Korea's policies would be enacted and enforced under the guidance of the Japanese resident general; and in 1910, through the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty, Japan officially declared its annexation of Korea, a move for which Japan had been preparing for an extended period of time. All of these treaties were procured under duress, and Emperor
Sunjong Sunjong, the Emperor Yunghui (; 25 March 1874 – 24 April 1926), was the second and the last Emperor of Korea, of the Yi dynasty, ruling from 1907 until 1910. Biography Crown Prince of Korea Sunjong was the second son of Emperor Gojong a ...
of Korea refused to sign them and considered them illegal and not binding (though he had no real power to oppose its enactment and enforcement). Notably, both the 1905 treaty (and by extension the 1907 treaty) and the 1910 annexation treaty were declared "already null and void" when the normalization of relations between the Republic of Korea and Japan was negotiated in 1965.


Japanese rule

The period of Japanese colonial rule that ensued was oppressive to a far-reaching degree, giving rise to many Korean resistance movements. By 1919 these became nationwide, marked by what became known as the March 1st Movement. Japanese rule was oppressive but changed over time. Initially, there was very harsh repression in the decade following annexation. Japan's rule was markedly different than in its other colony,
Formosa Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is an island country located in East Asia. The main island of Taiwan, formerly known in the Western political circles, press and literature as Formosa, makes up 99% of the land area of the territorie ...
. This period is referred to as ''amhukki'' (the dark period) in Korean historiography and common parlance in Korea. Tens of thousands of Koreans were arrested by the Japanese colonial administration for political reasons. The harshness of Japanese rule increased support for the Korean independence movement. Many Koreans left the Korean Peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia, some of whom formed resistance groups and societies in
Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer Manc ...
to fight for Korean independence.
Koreans Koreans ( South Korean: , , North Korean: , ; see names of Korea) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula. Koreans mainly live in the two Korean nation states: North Korea and South Korea (collectively and simply refe ...
also carried out armed struggles against Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea. In 1919 and 1920s, Korean independence army units engaged in resistance activities in Manchuria, which traveled across the Korean-Chinese border, using
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or Irregular military, irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, Raid (military), raids ...
to fight against the Japanese army. Some went to Japan, where groups agitated clandestinely. There was a prominent group of Korean Communists in Japan, who were in danger for their political activities. Partly due to Korean opposition to Japanese colonial policies, this was followed by a relaxation of some harsh policies. The Korean crown prince married the Japanese princess Nashimoto. The ban on Korean newspapers was lifted, allowing publication of ''
Choson Ilbo ''The Chosun Ilbo'' (, ) is a daily newspaper in South Korea and the oldest daily newspaper in the country. With a daily circulation of more than 1,800,000, the ''Chosun Ilbo'' has been audited annually since the Audit Bureau of Circulations w ...
'' and ''
The Dong-a Ilbo The ''Dong-A Ilbo'' (, literally ''East Asia Daily'') is a newspaper of record in Korea since 1920 with a daily circulation of more than 1.2 million and opinion leaders as its main readers. ''The Dong-A Ilbo'' is the parent company of Dong-A M ...
''. Korean government workers received the same wages as Japanese officials, though the Japanese officials received bonuses the Koreans did not. Whippings were eliminated for minor offenses but not for others. Laws interfering with burial, slaughtering of animals, peasant markets, or traditional customs were removed or changed. After the Peace Preservation Law of 1925, some freedoms were restricted. Then, in the lead up to the invasion of China and World War II, the harshness of Japanese rule increased again.


World War II diplomacy

Although the Empire of Japan had invaded and occupied northeast China from 1931, the Nationalist Government of China avoided declaring war on Japan until the Empire directly attacked Beijing in 1937, sparking the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...
. After the United States declared war on Japan in 1941, China became an Ally of World War II, and tried to exercise its influence within the group to support
Pan-Asian Satellite photograph of Asia in orthographic projection. Pan-Asianism (''also known as Asianism or Greater Asianism'') is an ideology aimed at creating a political and economic unity among Asian peoples. Various theories and movements of Pan-Asi ...
and nationalist movements, which included stipulating a demand of the complete surrender of Japan and immediate independence of Korea afterwards. China tried to promote the legitimacy of the
Provisional Government of Korea The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese ...
(KPG), which was established by Korean exiles in China after the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Korea. The KPG was ideologically aligned with the Chinese government of the time, as independence leader Kim Gu had agreed to
Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
's suggestion to adopt the Chinese
Three Principles of the People The Three Principles of the People (; also translated as the Three People's Principles, San-min Doctrine, or Tridemism) is a political philosophy developed by Sun Yat-sen as part of a philosophy to improve China made during the Republican Era. ...
program in exchange for financial aid. At the same time, China supported the leftist independence leader Kim Won-bong and convinced the two Kims to form the unified Korean Liberation Army (KLA). Under the terms in which the KLA was allowed to operate in China, it became an auxiliary of China's
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; ), sometimes shortened to Revolutionary Army () before 1928, and as National Army () after 1928, was the military arm of the Kuomintang (KMT, or the Chinese Nationalist Party) from 1925 until 1947 in China ...
until 1945. China's
National Military Council The Military Affairs Commission (MAC) of the National Government, chaired by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, directed the command of the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China. ...
had also decided that "complete independence" for Korea was China's fundamental Korean policy; otherwise, the government in
Chongqing Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...
tried to unify the warring Korean factions. Although Chiang and Korean leaders like
Syngman Rhee Syngman Rhee (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a South Korean politician who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960. Rhee was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Ko ...
tried to influence the
U.S. State Department The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nati ...
to support Korean independence and recognize the KPG, the Far Eastern Division was skeptical. Its argument was that the Korean people "were emasculated politically" after decades of Japanese rule, and showed too much disunity, preferring a
condominium A condominium (or condo for short) is an ownership structure whereby a building is divided into several units that are each separately owned, surrounded by common areas that are jointly owned. The term can be applied to the building or complex ...
solution for Korea that involved the Soviets. China was adamantly opposed to Soviet influence in Korea after hearing about Soviet atrocities in Poland since its liberation. By the
Cairo Conference The Cairo Conference (codenamed Sextant) also known as the First Cairo Conference, was one of the 14 summit meetings during World War II that occurred on November 22–26, 1943. The Conference was held in Cairo, Egypt, between the United Kingdo ...
, the US and China came to agree on Korean independence "in due course", with China still pressing for immediate recognition of the exile government and a tangible date for independence. After Soviet-American relations deteriorated, on August 10, 1945 the
United States Department of War The United States Department of War, also called the War Department (and occasionally War Office in the early years), was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army, a ...
agreed that China should land troops in
Pusan Busan (), officially known as is South Korea's most populous city after Seoul, with a population of over 3.4 million inhabitants. Formerly romanized as Pusan, it is the economic, cultural and educational center of southeastern South Korea, w ...
, Korea from which to prevent a Soviet takeover. However, this turnaround was too late to prevent the
division of Korea The division of Korea began with the defeat of Empire of Japan, Japan in World War II. During the war, the Allies of World War II, Allied leaders considered the question of Korea's future after Japan's surrender in the war. The leaders reached ...
, as the
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and, after ...
quickly occupied northern Korea that same month.


Ideologies and concerns

Although there were many separate movements against colonial rule, the main ideology or purpose of the movement was to free Korea from the Japanese military and political rule. Koreans were concerned with alien domination and Korea’s state as a colony. They desired to restore Korea's independent political sovereignty after Japan invaded the weakened and partially modernized
Korean Empire The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910. During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwa ...
. This was the result of Japan's political maneuvers to secure international approval for the annexation of treaty annexing Korea. During the independence movement, the rest of the world viewed what was occurring in Korea as an anti-imperialist, anti-militarist, and an anti-Japanese resistance movement. Koreans, however, saw the movement as a step to free Korea from the Japanese military rule. The South Korean government has been criticized as recently as 2011 for not accepting Korean socialists who fought for Korean independence.


Tactics

There was no main strategy or tactic that was prevalent throughout the resistance movement, but there were stages where certain tactics or strategies were prominent. From 1905 to 1910, most of the movement’s activities were closed off to the elite class or rare scholar. During this time, militaristic and violent attempts were taken to resist the Japanese including
assassination Assassination is the murder of a prominent or important person, such as a head of state, head of government, politician, world leader, member of a royal family or CEO. The murder of a celebrity, activist, or artist, though they may not have ...
. Most of the attempts were disorganized, scattered, and leaderless to prevent arrests and surveillance by the Japanese. From 1910 to 1919, was a time of education during the colonial era. Many Korean textbooks on grammar and spelling were circulated in schools. It started the trend of intellectual resistance to Japanese colonial rule. This period, along with
Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
’s progressive principles abroad, created an aware, nationalist, and eager student population. After the March 1st movement of 1919, strikes became prominent in the movement. Up to 1945, universities were used as a haven and source of students who further supported the movement. This support system led to the improvement of school facilities. From 1911 to 1937, Korea was dealing with economic problems (with the rest of the world, going through the Great Depression after World War I). There were many labor complaints that contributed to the grievances against Japan’s colonial rule. During this period, there were 159,061 disputes with workers concerned with wages and 1018 disputes involving 68,686 farmers in a tenant position. In 1926 the disputes started to increase at a fast pace and movements concerning labor emerged more within the Independence Movement.


Types of movements

There were broadly three kinds of national liberation groups: (a) the Christian groups which grew out of missionary efforts led by Western missionaries primarily from the United States prior to the Japanese occupation; (b) the former military and the irregular army groups; and (c) business and intellectual expatriates who formed the theoretical and political framework abroad.


Religious groups

Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
arrived in Korea towards the end of the 18th century, facing intense persecution for the centuries afterwards.
Methodist Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's b ...
and
Presbyterian Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their nam ...
missionaries followed in the 19th century starting off a renaissance with more liberal thoughts on issues of equality and woman's rights, which the strict Confucian tradition would not permit. The early Korean Christian missionaries both led the Korean independence movement active from 1890 through 1907, and later the creation of a Korean liberation movement from 1907 to 1945. Korean Christians suffered martyrdoms, crucifixions, burnings to death, police interrogations and massacres by the Japanese. Amongst the major religious nationalist groups were: * Korean Presbyterian church *
March 1 Movement The March 1st Movement, also known as the Sam-il (3-1) Movement (Hangul: 삼일 운동; Hanja: 三一 運動), was a protest movement by Korean people and students calling for independence from Japan in 1919, and protesting forced assimilation ...
* Korean
YMCA YMCA, sometimes regionally called the Y, is a worldwide youth organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, with more than 64 million beneficiaries in 120 countries. It was founded on 6 June 1844 by George Williams in London, originally ...


Military and the Irregular army groups

*
Donghak Peasant Revolution The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of Donghak Peasant Revolution#Role played by Donghak, other names, was an armed ...
: Donghak armies were spontaneous countryside uprisings, originally against corruption in the late Joseon dynasty, and later, against Japanese confiscation of lands in Korea. * Righteous army: Small armies that fought Japanese military police, cavalry, and infantry most intensely from 1907–1918, but which carried on till the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. * Greater Korea Independence Army () * Northern Military Administration Office Army () * Greater Korea Independence Corps () * Korea Revolution Army () * Korea Independence Army () * Korean Volunteer Corps () *
Korean Volunteer Army The Yan'an faction () were a group of pro-China communists in the North Korean government after the division of Korea following World War II. The group was involved in a power struggle with pro-Soviet factions but Kim Il-sung was eventually able ...
() * Korean Liberation Army: The Armed Forces of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, took part in allied action in China and parts of Southern East Asia such as
Burma Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
. * Korean Patriotic Legion () *
Heroic Corps The Heroic Corps () was an organization founded in Korea in 1919, during the Korea under Japanese rule, Japanese colonial period. Its activists believed in revolutionary uprising as well as egalitarianism. After the March 1st Movement was crushed ...
() Supporters of these groups included French, Czech, Chinese, and Russian arms merchants, as well as Chinese nationalist movements.


Expatriate groups

Expatriate liberation groups were active in Shanghai, northeast China, parts of Russia, Hawaii, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Groups were even organised in areas without many expatriate Koreans, such as the one established in 1906 in
Colorado Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of t ...
by
Park Hee Byung Park Hee Byung (1871, Gangwon, Korea – June 13, 1907, Denver, Colorado) was a Korean independence activist and one of the first Korean immigrants to the U.S. state of Colorado. Life and death Park first came to the United States in 1900 with Y ...
. The culmination of expatriate success was the Shanghai declaration of independence. * Korean National Army Corps (), founded in June 1914. (Hawaii) * Korean National Association () * Young Korean Academy ()
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen (; also known by several other names; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition . was a Chinese politician who serve ...
was an early supporter of Korean struggles against Japanese invaders. By 1925, Korean expatriates began to cultivate two-pronged support in Shanghai: from Chiang Kai-Shek's
Kuomintang The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Tai ...
, and from early communist supporters, who later branched into the
Chinese Communist Party The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victoriou ...
. Little real support came through, but that which did develop long-standing relationships that contributed to the dividing of Korea after 1949, and the polar positions between south and north.


Royalist influence

The constant infighting within the
Yi family The House of Yi, also called the Yi dynasty (also transcribed as the Lee dynasty), was the royal family of the Joseon, Joseon dynasty and later the imperial family of the Korean Empire, descended from the Joseon founder Taejo of Joseon, Yi Seong-g ...
, the nobles, the confiscation of royal assets, the disbanding of the royal army by the Japanese, the execution of seniors within Korea by Japan, comprehensive assassinations of Korean royalty by Japanese mercenaries, and surveillance by Japanese authorities led to great difficulties in royal descendants and their family groups in finding anything but a partial leadership within the liberation movement. A good many of the righteous army commanders were linked to the family but these generals and their righteous army groups were largely dead by 1918, and
cadet A cadet is an officer trainee or candidate. The term is frequently used to refer to those training to become an officer in the military, often a person who is a junior trainee. Its meaning may vary between countries which can include youths in ...
members of the families contributed towards establishing both republics post-1945.


List of notable leaders of the movements


Before Annexation Period

*
Yi Han-eung Yi Han-eung (Korean:이한응, Hanja:李漢應, 30 October 1874 — 12 May 1905) was a Korean diplomat in London, UK. He served as Charge d'Affaires of the Korean Emperor Gojong to the UK and Italy when the Korean Peninsula was about to be occup ...
*
Choe Ik-hyeon Choe Ik-hyeon (; 1833–1906, also transliterated as Choe Ik-hyun) was a Korean Joseon Dynasty scholar, politician, philosopher, and general of the Korean Righteous Army guerrilla forces. He was a strong supporter of Neo-Confucianism and a very vo ...
*
Min Yeong-hwan Min Yeong-hwan (민영환, 閔泳煥; 7 August 1861 - 30 November 1905) was a politician, diplomat, and general of the Korean Empire and known as a conservative proponent for reform. He was born in Seoul into the powerful Yeoheung Min clan whic ...
*
Shin Dol-seok Shin Dol-seok () was a Korean general of a Righteous Army that fought against the Japanese army in the early 20th century. He was born in Yeonghae (now Yeongdeok), North Gyeongsang Province. Military career Righteous armies emerged in the afterma ...
*
Yi Tjoune Yi Tjoune (December 18, 1859 – July 14, 1907), also known as Yi Jun (이준), was a Korean prosecutor and diplomat and the father of the North Korean politician Lee Yong. Early life and education Yi Tjoune was born in Bukcheong in the pro ...
*
Yi Wi-jong Ouitjyong Yi (1884–1924(?)), also known as Yi Wi-jong, was a Korean diplomat and military officer. His name in Russian is Vladimir Sergeyevich Li (). His father Yi Beom-Jin was a politician. Yi Wi-Jong took part in World War I as a 2nd lieut ...
*
Choe Sihyeong Choe Si-hyeong ( ko, 최시형; 1827–1898), birth name Choe Gyeong-sang, was born in Gyeongju. His posthumous name was Si-hyeong and his honorific title was Hae-wol (해월), and he is referred to hereafter by that name. He was the second leade ...


Provisional Government

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Ahn Chang Ho Ahn Changho, sometimes An Chang-ho (; , November 9, 1878 – March 10, 1938) was a Korean independence activist and one of the early leaders of the Korean-American immigrant community in the United States. He is also referred to by his pen na ...
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Hong Jin Hong Jin (27 August 1877 – 9 September 1946), also known as Hong Myeon-hui, was a leader of the Korean independence movement. He is also sometimes known by his pen name Mano (만오, 晩悟), and his Christian name, Andre. He was born under th ...
(Hong Myun-hui) *
Jo So-ang Jo So-ang (조소앙, 30 April 1887 – 10 September 1958) was a politician and an educator in Korea under Japanese rule. He participated in the Korean independence movement. He participated in drawing up a draft of the proclamation of the i ...
* Kim Gu * Kim Kyu-sik * Lee Beom-seok * No Baek-rin *
Park Eunsik Park Eunsik (September 30, 1859 - November 1, 1925) was a Korean historian and the second President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai during part of 1925. Soon after the impeachment of Syngman Rhee from the presid ...
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Syngman Rhee Syngman Rhee (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a South Korean politician who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960. Rhee was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Ko ...
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Yang Gi-tak Yang Gi-tak (April 2, 1871 – April 20, 1938) was one of the leaders of Korean independence movement who served as the 9th president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1933 to 1935. Korea Daily News In 1904, Yang and ...
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Yi Dong-hwi Yi Donghwi (; August 2, 1873 ~ January 31, 1935) was a prominent Communist politician of Korea, and the second Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. In 1911, Yi was exiled in Manchuria and moved to Primorsky K ...
* Yi Dong-nyung *
Yi Sang-ryong Yi Sang-ryong (November 24, 1859 – June 15, 1932) was a Korean Liberation activist, serving as the third president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1925 to 1926. Yi Sang-ryong, along with Yi Si-yeong and Yi Dong-nyun ...


Edification movement leaders

*
Ahn Chang Ho Ahn Changho, sometimes An Chang-ho (; , November 9, 1878 – March 10, 1938) was a Korean independence activist and one of the early leaders of the Korean-American immigrant community in the United States. He is also referred to by his pen na ...
*
Han Kyu-seol Han Kyu-seol (Hangul:한규설, Hanja:韓圭卨 29 February 1848 – 22 September 1930) was a prime minister of Korean Empire when Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 was signed. Han opposed the treaty, but he failed to prevent it from being signed. Li ...
* Jeong Jong-myeong * Cho Man-sik *:ko:이상재, Yi Sang-jae *Yi Sang-seol


Leaders who engaged in armed struggle

*An Jung-geun * *:ko:안공근, An Gong-geun *:ko:최재형, Choi Jae-hyung *Choi Jin-dong *:ko:조도선, Jo Do-seon *:ko:유동하, Yoo Dong-ha *Kang Woo-kyu *Jang In-hwan *Jeon Myeong-un *:ko:조명하, Cho Myung-ha *:ko:김익상, Kim Ik-sang *:ko:김지섭, Kim Ji-seop *Kim Sang Ok, Kim Sang-ok *Lee Bong-chang *Lee Hoe-yeong *Na Seok-ju *:ko:박재혁 (독립운동가), Park Jae-hyeok *Park Yeol *:ko:편강렬, Pyeon Gang-ryeol *Yoon Bong-Gil *:ko:구영필, Gu Young-pil *:ko:김상윤 (1897년), Kim Sang-yoon *:ko:바실리 박, Park Byeong-gil *:ko:박장호, Park Jang-ho *:ko:백남식 (1866년), Baek Nam-sik *Baek Jung Gi *Yeom Dong-jin *:ko:우덕순, Woo Deok-soon *:ko:이성림 (1900년), Lee Seong-rim *:ko:인한수, In Han-soo *:ko:채찬, Chaechan *:ko:김시현 (1883년), Kim Si-hyun *:ko:이구연, Lee Gu-yeon *:ko:이정구 (의병장), Lee Jung-gu *Lim Chi-jung *:ko:김두화, Kim Doo-hwa *:ko:원태우, Won Tae-woo *:ko:정신 (1898년), Jeongshin *:ko:채응언, Chae Eung-eon *:ko:한상렬 (1876년), Han Sang-ryeol *:ko:한훈, Han Hoon *:ko:황병길, Hwang Byeong-gil *:ko:마만봉, Ma Man-bong *:ko:장기초, Jang Gi-cho *:ko:최자남, Choe Ja-nam *:ko:현익철, Hyun Ik-cheol *:ko:조맹선, Cho Maeng-seon *:ko:이준용 (1893년), Lee Joon-yong *:ko:임득산, Im Deuk-san *:ko:장창헌, Jang Chang-heon *:ko:이진룡, Lee Jin-ryong *:ko:김립 (1880년), Kim Rip *Ok Kwan-bin *:ko:오성륜, Oh Seong-ryun *:ko:이종암, Lee Jong-am *:ko:김봉환 (1897년), Kim Bong-hwan *:ko:이광수 (1873년), Lee Kwang-su *:ko:이혜수, Lee Hye-su *:ko:현준혁, Hyun Joon-hyuk *Ahn Doo-hee *Kim Jong-suk *Hong Beom-do *:ko:정진룡, Jeong Jin-ryong *:ko:나철, Na Cheol *:ko:강원상, Kang Won-sang *:ko:이강 (1878년), Lee Kang *:ko:이규풍, Lee Gyu-pung *:ko:이범윤, Lee Beom-yoon *:ko:원태근, Won Tae-geun *:ko:배경진 (1885년), Bae Gyeong-jin *:ko:이토 히로부미 저격 사건, Kim Seong-hwa *:ko:이토 히로부미 저격 사건, Tak Gong-gyu *:ko:이토 히로부미 저격 사건, Yoo Seung-ryeol *Kim Hong-il (general), Kim Hong-il *:ko:이경희 (1880년), Lee Gyeong-hee *:ko:양근환, Yang Geun-hwan *:ko:유석현 (1900년), Yoo Seok-hyun *:ko:안경신, An Gyeong-shin *:ko:오적 암살단, Lee Cheol *:ko:오적 암살단, Hong Pil-ju *:ko:오적 암살단, Oh Gi-ho *:ko:오적 암살단, Kim In-sik *:ko:오적 암살단, Kim Dong-pil *:ko:오적 암살단, Lee Hong-rae *:ko:김광추, Kim Kwang-chu *:ko:박희광, Park Hee-kwang *:ko:3인조 암살단, Kim Byeong-hyun *:ko:이재명 (1887년), Lee Jae-myeong *:ja:李王世子暗殺未遂事件, Seo Sang-han *:ko:나창헌 (1896년), Na Chang-heon
Kim Chang-geun
*:ko:이준용 (1893년), Lee Jun-yong *:ko:김태원 (1902년), Kim Tae-won *Lee Yong-dam *Joo Sang-ok
Kim Taek-suJeong Chang-hwaBaek Un-hanLee Myeong-seoKim Geun-haHam IlKim Jin-hwa
*:ko:이기 (1848년), Lee Gi *:ko:노응규, Noh Eung-gyu
Seo Eun-guEom Hae-yoonNoh Gong-ilKim Choe-myeong
*:ko:한봉수, Han Bong-su
Kang Sang-moKang Lee-bongMoon Tae-suShin Myeong-seonKim Dong-shinKang Jin-wonKo Du-hwanKwon Young-manKeum Gi-cheolHan Sang-seolKim Hyeon-gukWoo Jae-ryongKim Deok-soonKim Dong-sikKim Man-suKim Beom-iKim Byeong-rokKim Bong-wonKim Bong-hak
*:ko:김성범 (1899년), Kim Seong-beom *:ko:김시중 (의병장), Kim Si-jung *:ko:이강년 (1858년), Lee Kang-nyeon
Kim Sang-taeKim Young-cheolKim Seong-taek
*:ko:황병학, Hwang Byung-hak
Kim Eung-baekKim Lee-seopKim Il-wonKim Su-gokYun Heung-gonKim Jeong-ikCho Chang-hoJeon Tae-seonLee Dong-suKim I-geolKim Jong-cheolKim Jin-man
*:ko:박상진 (1884년), Park Sang-jin
Kim Jin-wooJeong Un-ilChoi Byung-gyuKim Jin-junCho Chang-ryongKim Chang-gonKo Bong-junKim Han-jongKim Gyeong-taeIm Bong-juKwon Sang-seokJang Doo-hwanNa Byeong-samKim HanMoon Chang-hakPark Gi-han
*:ko:이탁 (1889년), Lee Tak
Cha Byeong-jeSon Chang-junLee Woo-youngAn Gyeong-sikJoo Byeong-ungPark Jin-taePark Gi-jePark Do-gyeongPark Bong-seokPark Yeon-baekPark In-hwaPark Jung-seoMin Yang-giSeo Byung-heeSeong Ik-hyunSon Deok-oh
*:ko:송학선, Song Hak-seon
Yeo Haeng-ryeolYoon Heung-gonLee Kwang-hoLee Kyo-young
*:ko:이성구 (1896년), Lee Seong-gu
Cha Do-seon
*:ko:태양욱, Tae Yang-uk
Hong Sung-ikLee Myeong-gyun
*:ko:조성환 (1875년), Cho Seong-hwan *:ko:채상덕, Chae Sang-deok
Kang Mu-gyeongKim Won-gukKim Jun-seungNoh Jong-gyunMoon Yang-mokChoi Jeong-ik
*:ko:정재관, Jeong Jae-gwan
Lee Hak-hyunBaek Nak-ju
*:ko:서일, Seo Il *Kim Chwa-chin
Sim Nam-ilAn Kwang-joOh Seung-taeAn Gyu-hongJeong Ki-chanAhn Byung-chanYang Seung-wooOh Sung-sulYoo Jang-ryeolLee Hyeon-gyu


Military leaders

*An Jung-geun *Hong Beom-do *:ko:황병길, Hwang Byeong-gil *Ji Cheong-cheon *Kim Dubong *Kim Jwa-jin *Kim Wonbong * Lee Beom-seok *Nam Ja-hyun *Park Yong-man *:ko:서일, Seo Il *:ko:서윤제, Seo Yun-je *:ko:양세봉, Yang Sebong *:ko:윤세주, Yun Se-ju *:ko:방경한, Bang Kyung-han *Kim Il-Sung *Choi Jin Dong


Religion/Student leaders

*Han Yong-un *Kim Maria *Son Byong Hi * *Yu Gwansun *Choe Sang-rim *:ko:이용도, Lee Yong-do *:ko:계지풍, Gye Ji-pung *:ko:김교신, Kim Gyo-shin *:ko:김동석 (1923년), Kim Dong-seok *:ko:김법린, Kim Beop-rin *Kim Seong-su *:ko:나금주, Na Geum-ju *Mangong *:ko:박순천, Park Sun-cheon *:ko:박영희 (승려), Park Young-hee *:ko:박형무, Park Hyeong-mu *:ko:서윤제, Seo Yun-je *:ko:안상덕, An Sang-deok *:ko:안정근, An Jeong-geun *Yun Chi-young *:ko:이운형, Lee Un-hyeong *:ko:이종욱 (승려), Lee Jong-uk *:ko:이추형, Lee Chu-hyeong *:ko:전덕기, Jeon Deok-gi *:ko:조기신, Cho Gi-shin *Chu Ki-chol *:ko:차미리사, Cha Mirisa *:ko:차상명, Cha Sang-myeong *:ko:최용신, Choe Yong-shin *:ko:황애덕, Hwang Ae-deok *:ko:이수흥, Lee Su-heung *Ham Tae-young *Kim Iryeop *:ko:백성욱, Baek Seong-uk *Gil Seon-ju *:ko:김병조 (1877년), Kim Byeong-cho *:ko:박희도 (1889년), Park Hee-do *Yongseong *Son Byong-hi *:ko:신석구, Shin Seok-gu *:ko:오세창, Oh Se-chang *:ko:이승훈 (1864년), Lee Seung-hoon *Han Yong-un *:ko:김교헌, Kim Gyo-heon * Kim Kyu-sik *:ko:장형 (1889년), Jonghyeong *:ko:윤세복, Yoon Se-bok *
Jo So-ang Jo So-ang (조소앙, 30 April 1887 – 10 September 1958) was a politician and an educator in Korea under Japanese rule. He participated in the Korean independence movement. He participated in drawing up a draft of the proclamation of the i ...


Historians

*An Jae-hong *Choe Nam-seon *:ko:정인보, Jeong Inbo *Mun Il-pyeong *
Park Eunsik Park Eunsik (September 30, 1859 - November 1, 1925) was a Korean historian and the second President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai during part of 1925. Soon after the impeachment of Syngman Rhee from the presid ...
*Shin Chae-ho *:ko:송남헌, Song Nam-heon *:ko:송두용, Song Du-yong


Writers/Poets

*Sim Hun *Yi Yuksa (Yi Wonnok) *Yun Dong-ju *Soh Jaipil *Kang Kyeong-ae *Gong Deok-gwi *:ko:곽상훈, Gwak Sang-hoon *:ko:김광섭, Kim Kwang-seop *:ko:김교신, Kim Gyo-shin *:ko:김성숙 (1898년), Kim Seong-suk *Kim Jun-yop *Kim Hyun-chul (politician), Kim Hyun-chul *:ko:백관수, Baek Gwan-su *Mirok Li *:ko:이상백 (1904년), Yi Sang-baek *:ko:이종학 (1879년), Lee Jong-hak *:ko:이희승, Lee Hee-seung *:ko:장도빈, Jang Do-bin *Chu Yo-han *:ko:최두선, Choe Du-seon *Heo Jeong *Hyun Jin-geon *:ko:홍승로, Hong Seung-ro *Jung Nosik *Kim Myeong-sun *Na Hye-sok *Park In-deok *Chung Chil-sung *:ko:이종일 (1858년), Lee Jong-il *Han Yong-un *:ko:김동삼, Kim Dong-sam *:ko:김약연, Kim Yak-yeon *Kim Chwa-chin *Sin Ik-hui *Lee Beom-seok (prime minister), Lee Beom-seok *An Jae-hong


Communist leaders

*Kim Il-sung, Kim Il-Sung *Pak Hon-yong, a noted communist leader *Yuh Woon-Hyung associated with Communists during the 20s, but later left *:ko:계봉우, Gye Bong-woo *:ko:김단야, Kim Dan-ya *Jang Jirak, Kim San *:ko:김약수, Kim Yak-su *:ko:김재봉, Kim Jae-bong *:ko:김준연, Kim Jun-yeon *:ko:나경석, Na Kyung-seok *:ko:유진희, Yoo Jin-hee *:ko:윤공흠, Yun Gong-heum *:ko:윤자영, Yun Ja-young *:ko:임원근, Im Won-geun *:ko:주세죽, Ju Se-juk *:ko:차금봉, Cha Geum-bong *Choe Chang-ik *Ho Ka-i *Ho Jong-suk *Ho Hon *:ko:현정경, Hyun Jeong-gyeong *Kang Kon *Kim Kwang-hyop *Kim Tu-bong *Mu Chong *Kim Yong-bom *Kim Ung * Kim Won-bong *Kim Il (politician), Kim Il *:ko:김창만, Kim Chang-man *Kim Chaek *:ko:류경수, Ryu Gyeong-su *Yi Kang-guk *:ko:리효순, Lee Hyo-sun *Pak Kum-chol *:ko:방호산, Bang Ho-san *Paek Nam-un, Paek Nam-Un *Sung Jusik *:ko:오화영, Oh Hwa-young *Yi Kuk-no *:ko:이현상, Lee Hyun-sang *:ko:조명선, Cho Myeong-seon *Choe Deok-sin *:ko:최용달, Choe Yong-dal *:ko:최인 (1911년), Choein *Choe Hyon *Ho Song-taek *Hong Myong-hui *:ko:황태성, Hwang Tae-seong *Kim Jong-suk *:ko:최린, Choerin *:ko:문시환, Mun Si-hwan *Lee Yung, Lee yung *
Yi Dong-hwi Yi Donghwi (; August 2, 1873 ~ January 31, 1935) was a prominent Communist politician of Korea, and the second Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. In 1911, Yi was exiled in Manchuria and moved to Primorsky K ...
*Hong Beom-do *:ko:강해석, Kang Hae-seok *:ko:강영석, Kang Young-seok *:ko:변희용, Byeon Hee-yong *:ko:방준표, Bang Joon-pyo *:ko:강달영, Kang Dal-young *:ko:정진룡, Jeong Jin-ryong *Tjyongoui Yi


Foreign supporters

*
Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
*Ernest Bethell *Frank Schofield *Fumiko Kaneko *George Show *Homer Hulbert *
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen (; also known by several other names; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition . was a Chinese politician who serve ...
*Vladimir Lenin *Zhou Enlai, Chou En-lai *Mao Zedong, Mao Tse-tung *Tatsuji Fuse


See also

*Korean nationalism *History of Korea * Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea * March 1st Movement *June 10th Movement *Gwangju Student Independence Movement * Korean Liberation Army *Battle of Qingshanli *Battle of Fengwudong


References


Jin Y. Park, ed. 'Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism'Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009


External links


Brief article on Korean Independence
from Japanese Press Translations, Dartmouth College Library {{Authority control Republicanism in Korea Korean independence movement, 20th century in Korea Japan–Korea relations Foreign relations of the Republic of China (1912–1949)