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A Dolby noise-reduction system, or Dolby NR, is one of a series of
noise reduction Noise reduction is the process of removing noise from a signal. Noise reduction techniques exist for audio and images. Noise reduction algorithms may distort the signal to some degree. Noise rejection is the ability of a circuit to isolate an u ...
systems developed by
Dolby Laboratories Dolby Laboratories, Inc. (often shortened to Dolby Labs and known simply as Dolby) is an American company specializing in audio noise reduction, audio encoding/compression, spatial audio, and HDR imaging. Dolby licenses its technologies to ...
for use in analog audio tape recording. The first was '' Dolby A'', a professional
broadband In telecommunications, broadband is wide bandwidth data transmission which transports multiple signals at a wide range of frequencies and Internet traffic types, that enables messages to be sent simultaneously, used in fast internet connections. ...
noise reduction system for recording studios in 1965, but the best-known is '' Dolby B'' (introduced in 1968), a sliding band system for the consumer market, which helped make high fidelity practical on
cassette tape The Compact Cassette or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the tape cassette, cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. Invented by Lou Ott ...
s, which used a relatively noisy tape size and speed. It is common on high-fidelity stereo tape players and recorders to the present day, although Dolby has as of 2016 ceased licensing the technology for new cassette decks. Of the noise reduction systems, ''Dolby A'' and '' Dolby SR'' were developed for professional use. ''Dolby B'', '' C'', and '' S'' were designed for the consumer market. Aside from Dolby HX, all the Dolby variants work by
companding In telecommunication and signal processing, companding (occasionally called compansion) is a method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. The name is a portmanteau of the words compressing and expandi ...
: compressing the
dynamic range Dynamic range (abbreviated DR, DNR, or DYR) is the ratio between the largest and smallest values that a certain quantity can assume. It is often used in the context of signals, like sound and light. It is measured either as a ratio or as a base ...
of the sound during recording, and expanding it during playback.


Usage

When recording a signal on magnetic tape, there is a low level of noise in the background which sounds like hissing. One solution to this issue is to use low-noise tape, which records more signal, and less noise. Other solutions are to run the tape at a higher speed or use a wider tape. Cassette tapes were originally designed to trade off fidelity for the convenience of recording voice by using a very narrow tape running at a very slow speed of 1⅞ inches per second (ips) housed in a simple plastic shell when 15 ips or 7½ ips tape speeds were for high fidelity, and 3¾ ips was of lower fidelity. As a result of their narrow tracks and slow speed, cassettes make
tape hiss Tape or Tapes may refer to: Material A long, narrow, thin strip of material (see also Ribbon (disambiguation): Adhesive tapes * Adhesive tape, any of many varieties of backing materials coated with an adhesive *Athletic tape, pressure-sensiti ...
a very severe problem. Dolby noise reduction is a form of dynamic pre-emphasis employed during recording, plus a form of dynamic de-emphasis used during playback, that work in tandem to improve the
signal-to-noise ratio Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in de ...
. The signal-to-noise ratio is simply how large the music signal is compared to the low level of tape noise with no signal. When the music is loud, the low background hiss level is not noticeable, but when the music is soft or in silence, most or all of what can be heard is the noise. If the recording level is adjusted so that the music is always loud, then the low-level noise would not be audible. One cannot simply increase the volume of the recording to achieve this end; tapes have a maximum volume they can record, so already-loud sounds will become distorted. The idea is to increase the volume of the recording only when the original material is not already loud, and then reduce the volume by the same amount on playback so that the signal returns to the original volume levels. When the volume is reduced on playback, the noise level is reduced by the same amount. This basic concept, increasing the volume to overwhelm inherent noise, is known as pre-emphasis, and is found in a number of products. On top of this basic concept, Dolby noise reduction systems add another improvement. This takes into account the fact that tape noise is largely heard at frequencies above 1,000 Hz. It is the lower-frequency sounds that are often loud, like drum beats, so by only applying the
companding In telecommunication and signal processing, companding (occasionally called compansion) is a method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. The name is a portmanteau of the words compressing and expandi ...
to certain frequencies, the total amount of distortion of the original signal can be reduced and focused only on the problematic frequencies. The differences in the various Dolby products are largely evident in the precise set of frequencies that they use and the amount of modification of the original signal volume that is applied to each of the frequency bands. Within each band, the amount of pre-emphasis applied depends on the original signal volume. For instance, in Dolby B, a low-level signal will be boosted by 10  dB, while signals at the "Dolby Level", +3  VU, receive no signal modification at all. Between the two limits, a varying level of pre-emphasis is applied. On playback, the opposite process is applied (de-emphasis), based on the relative signal component above 1 kHz. Thus as this portion of the signal decreases in amplitude, the higher frequencies are progressively increasingly attenuated, which also reduces in level the constant background noise on the tape when and where it would be most noticeable. The two processes (pre- and de-emphasis) are intended to cancel each other out as far as the actual recorded program material is concerned. During playback, only de-emphasis is applied to the incoming off-tape signal and noise. After playback de-emphasis is complete, the apparent noise in the output signal is reduced, and this process should not produce any other effect noticeable to the listener other than reduced background noise. However, playback without noise reduction produces a noticeably brighter sound. The correct calibration of the recording and playback circuitry is critical in order to ensure faithful reproduction of the original program content. The calibration can easily be upset by poor-quality tape, dirty or misaligned recording/playback heads, or using inappropriate
bias Bias is a disproportionate weight ''in favor of'' or ''against'' an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a group ...
levels/frequency for the tape formulation, as well as tape speed when recording or duplicating. This can manifest itself as muffled-sounding playback, or "
breathing Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and from the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly to flush out carbon dioxide and bring in oxygen. All aerobic creatures need oxygen for cellu ...
" of the noise level as the volume level of the signal varies. On some high-end consumer equipment, a Dolby calibration control is included. For recording, a reference tone at Dolby Level may be recorded for accurate playback level calibration on another transport. At playback, the same recorded tone should produce the identical output, as indicated by a Dolby logo marking at approximately +3 VU on the VU meter(s). In consumer equipment, Dolby Level is defined as 200  nWb/m, and calibration tapes were available to assist with the task of correct level setting. For accurate off-the-tape monitoring during recording on 3-head tape decks, both processes must be employed at once, and circuitry provided to accomplish this is marketed under the rubric "Double Dolby".


Dolby A

Dolby A-type noise reduction was the Dolby company's first noise reduction system, presented in 1965. It was intended for use in professional recording studios, where it became commonplace, gaining widespread acceptance at the same time that
multitrack recording Multitrack recording (MTR), also known as multitracking or tracking, is a method of sound recording developed in 1955 that allows for the separate recording of multiple sound sources or of sound sources recorded at different times to create a ...
became standard. The input signal is split into frequency bands by four filters with 12 dB per octave slopes, with
cutoff frequencies In physics and electrical engineering, a cutoff frequency, corner frequency, or break frequency is a boundary in a system's frequency response at which energy flowing through the system begins to be reduced ( attenuated or reflected) rather than ...
(3 dB down points) as follows:
low-pass A low-pass filter is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a selected cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The exact frequency response of the filter depends on the filte ...
at 80 Hz;
band-pass A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range. Description In electronics and signal processing, a filter is usually a two-po ...
from 80 Hz to 3 kHz; a high-pass from 3 kHz; and another high-pass at 9 kHz. (The stacking of contributions from the two high-pass bands allows greater noise reduction in the upper frequencies.) The compander circuit has a threshold of −40 dB, with a ratio of 2:1 for a compression/expansion of 10 dB. This provides about 10 dB of noise reduction increasing to a possible 15 dB at 15 kHz, according to articles written by Ray Dolby and published by the Audio Engineering Society (October 1967) and Audio (June/July 1968). As with the Dolby B-type system, correct matching of the compression and expansion processes is important. The calibration of the expansion (decoding) unit for magnetic tape uses a flux level of 185 nWb/m, which is the level used on industry calibration tapes such as those from Ampex; this is set to 0 VU on the tape recorder playback and to Dolby Level on the noise reduction unit. In the record (compression or encoding) mode, a characteristic tone (Dolby Tone) generated inside the noise reduction unit is set to 0 VU on the tape recorder and to 185 nWb/m on the tape. The Dolby A-type system also saw some use as the method of noise reduction in
optical sound Optical sound is a means of storing sound recordings on transparent film. Originally developed for military purposes, the technology first saw widespread use in the 1920s as a sound-on-film format for motion pictures. Optical sound eventually ...
for motion pictures.


Dolby B

Dolby B-type noise reduction was developed after Dolby A, and it was introduced in 1968. It consisted of a single sliding band system providing about 9 dB of noise reduction ( A-weighted), primarily for use with
cassette tape The Compact Cassette or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the tape cassette, cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. Invented by Lou Ott ...
s. It was much simpler than Dolby A and therefore much less expensive to implement in consumer products. Dolby B recordings are acceptable when played back on equipment that does not possess a Dolby B decoder, such as many inexpensive portable and car cassette players. Without the de-emphasis effect of the decoder, the sound will be perceived as brighter as high frequencies are emphasized, which can be used to offset "dull" high-frequency response in inexpensive equipment. However, Dolby B provides less effective noise reduction than Dolby A, generally by a factor of more than 3 dB. The Dolby B system is effective from approximately 1 kHz upwards; the noise reduction that is provided is 3 dB at 600 Hz, 6 dB at 1.2 kHz, 8 dB at 2.4 kHz, and 10 dB at 5 kHz. The width of the noise reduction band is variable, as it is designed to be responsive to both the amplitude and the frequency distribution of the signal. It is thus possible to obtain significant amounts of noise reduction down to quite low frequencies without causing audible modulation of the noise by the signal ("breathing"). From the mid-1970s, Dolby B became standard on commercially pre-recorded music cassettes even though some low-end equipment lacked decoding circuitry, although it allows for acceptable playback on such equipment. Most pre-recorded cassettes use this variant. VHS video recorders used Dolby B on linear stereo audio tracks. Prior to the introduction of later consumer variants (Dolby C being the first), cassette hardware supporting Dolby B and cassettes encoded with it would be labeled simply "Dolby System," "Dolby NR", or wordlessly with the Dolby symbol. This continued in some record labels and hardware manufacturers even after Dolby C had been introduced, during the period when the new standard was relatively little-known.
JVC JVC (short for Japan Victor Company) is a Japanese brand owned by JVCKenwood corporation. Founded in 1927 as the Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan and later as , the company is best known for introducing Japan's first televisions and for ...
's system, used in place of Dolby B on earlier JVC cassette decks, is considered compatible with Dolby B. JVC eventually abandoned the ANRS standard in favor of official Dolby B support; some JVC decks exist whose noise-reduction toggles have a combined "ANRS / Dolby B" setting.


Dolby FM

In the early 1970s, some expected Dolby NR to become normal in
FM radio FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation (FM). Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, wide-band FM is used worldwide to provide high fidelity sound over broadcast radio. FM broadcasting is cap ...
broadcasts and some tuners and amplifiers were manufactured with decoding circuitry; there were also some tape recorders with a Dolby B "pass-through" mode. In 1971
WFMT WFMT is an FM radio station in Chicago, Illinois, featuring a format of fine arts, classical music programming, and shows exploring such genres as folk. The station is managed by Window to the World Communications, Inc., owner of WTTW, Chicago ...
started to transmit programs with Dolby NR, and soon some 17 stations broadcast with noise reduction, but by 1974 it was already on the decline. Dolby FM was based on Dolby B, but used a modified 25 µs pre-emphasis time constant and a frequency-selective
companding In telecommunication and signal processing, companding (occasionally called compansion) is a method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. The name is a portmanteau of the words compressing and expandi ...
arrangement to reduce noise. A similar system named
High Com FM The High Com (also as HIGH COM, both written with a thin space) noise reduction system was developed by Telefunken, Germany, in the 1970s as a high quality high compression analogue compander for audio recordings. High Com ...
was evaluated in Germany between July 1979 and December 1981 by IRT. and field-trialed up to 1984. It was based on the
Telefunken Telefunken was a German radio and television apparatus company, founded in Berlin in 1903, as a joint venture of Siemens & Halske and the ''Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft'' (AEG) ('General electricity company'). The name "Telefunken" ap ...
High Com The High Com (also as HIGH COM, both written with a thin space) noise reduction system was developed by Telefunken, Germany, in the 1970s as a high quality high compression analogue compander for audio recordings. High Co ...
broadband compander system, but never introduced commercially in FM broadcasting. Another competing system was FMX, which was based on CX.


RMS

A fully Dolby B-compatible compander was developed and used on many
tape recorder An audio tape recorder, also known as a tape deck, tape player or tape machine or simply a tape recorder, is a sound recording and reproduction device that records and plays back sounds usually using magnetic tape for storage. In its present ...
s in the former
German Democratic Republic German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) ** Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **G ...
in the 1980s. It was called RMS (from , English: "Noise reduction system").


Dolby C

Dolby C-type noise reduction was introduced in 1980. It provides about 15 dB noise reduction ( A-weighted) in the 2 kHz to 8 kHz region where the ear is highly sensitive and most tape hiss is concentrated. It is constructed by combining the effect of two Dolby B systems together — a high-level stage and a low-level stage — with an expansion to lower frequencies. As in Dolby B, a "sliding band" technique (operating frequency varies with signal level) helps to suppress undesirable ''breathing'' which is often a problem with many other noise reduction techniques. As a result of the extra signal processing, Dolby C-type recordings will sound much worse when played back on equipment that does not have the required Dolby C decoding circuitry. Some of this harshness can be mitigated by using Dolby B on playback, which serves to reduce the strength of the high frequencies. With Dolby C-type processing, noise reduction begins two octaves lower in frequency in an attempt to maintain a psychoacoustically-uniform noise floor. In the region above 8 kHz, where the ear is less sensitive to noise, special spectral-skewing and anti-saturation networks come into play. These circuits prevent cross modulation of low frequencies with high frequencies, suppress tape saturation when large signal transients are present, and increase the effective headroom of the cassette tape system. As a result, recordings are cleaner and crisper with a much improved high-frequency response that the cassette medium heretofore lacked. With a good quality tape, the Dolby C response could be flat to 20 kHz at the 0 dB recording level, a previously unattainable result. An A-weighted signal-to-noise ratio of 72 dB (re 3% THD at 400 Hz) with no unwanted "breathing" effects, even on difficult-to-record passages, was possible. Dolby C first appeared on higher-end cassette decks in the 1980s. The first commercially available cassette deck with Dolby C was the NAD 6150C, which came onto the market around 1981. Dolby C was also used on professional video equipment for the audio tracks of the
Betacam Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, "Betacam" singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, a Betacam video recorder or the format itself. Al ...
and
Umatic SP U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, as oppo ...
videocassette formats. In Japan, the first cassette deck with Dolby C was the AD-FF5 from
Aiwa is a consumer electronics brand owned and used by various companies in different regions of the world. American and other regions are owned by Chicago-based Aiwa Corporation. Towada Audio based in Tokyo owns the rights to the brand in Japa ...
. Cassette decks with Dolby C also included Dolby B for backward compatibility, and were usually labeled as having "Dolby B-C NR".


Dolby SR

The Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) system, introduced in 1986, was the company's second professional noise reduction system. It is a much more aggressive noise reduction approach than Dolby A. It attempts to maximize the recorded signal at all times using a complex series of filters that change according to the input signal. As a result, Dolby SR is much more expensive to implement than Dolby B or C, but Dolby SR is capable of providing up to 25 dB of noise reduction in the high-frequency range. It is only found on professional recording equipment. In the motion picture industry, as far as it concerns distribution prints of movies, the Dolby A and SR markings refer to
Dolby Surround Dolby Pro Logic is a surround sound processing technology developed by Dolby Laboratories, designed to decode soundtracks encoded with Dolby Surround. Dolby Stereo (also known as ''Dolby MP'' or ''Dolby SVA'') was developed by Dolby in 1976 ...
which is not just a method of noise reduction, but more importantly encodes two additional audio channels on the standard
optical sound Optical sound is a means of storing sound recordings on transparent film. Originally developed for military purposes, the technology first saw widespread use in the 1920s as a sound-on-film format for motion pictures. Optical sound eventually ...
track, giving left, center, right, and surround. SR prints are fairly well backward compatible with old Dolby A equipment. The Dolby SR-D marking refers to both analog Dolby SR and digital
Dolby Digital Dolby Digital, originally synonymous with Dolby AC-3, is the name for what has now become a family of audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories. Formerly named Dolby Stereo Digital until 1995, the audio compression is loss ...
soundtracks on one print.


Dolby S

Dolby S was introduced in 1989. It was intended that Dolby S would become standard on commercial pre-recorded music cassettes in much the same way that Dolby B had in the 1970s, but it came to market when the
Compact Cassette The Compact Cassette or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the tape cassette, cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. Invented by Lou Otte ...
was being replaced by the
Compact Disc The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings. In August 1982, the first compact disc was manufactured. It was then released in O ...
as the dominant mass market music format. Dolby Labs claimed that most members of the general public could not differentiate between the sound of a CD and a Dolby S encoded cassette. Dolby S mostly appeared on high-end audio equipment and was never widely used. Dolby S is much more resistant to playback problems caused by noise from the tape transport mechanism than Dolby C. Likewise, Dolby S was also claimed to have playback compatibility with Dolby B in that a Dolby S recording could be played back on older Dolby B equipment with some benefit being realized. It is basically a cut-down version of Dolby SR and uses many of the same noise reduction techniques. Dolby S is capable of 10 dB of noise reduction at low frequencies and up to 24 dB of noise reduction at high frequencies.


Dolby HX/HX-Pro

Magnetic tape is inherently non-linear in nature due to
hysteresis Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field, depending on how the field changed in the past. Plots of a single component of ...
of the magnetic material. If an
analog signal An analog signal or analogue signal (see spelling differences) is any continuous signal representing some other quantity, i.e., ''analogous'' to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies ...
were recorded directly onto magnetic tape, its reproduction would be extremely distorted due to this
non-linearity In mathematics and science, a nonlinear system is a system in which the change of the output is not proportional to the change of the input. Nonlinear problems are of interest to engineers, biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and many ot ...
. To overcome this, a high-frequency signal, known as bias, is mixed in with the recorded signal, which "pushes" the envelope of the signal into the linear region. If the audio signal contains strong high-frequency content (in particular from percussion instruments such as
hi-hat cymbals A hi-hat (hihat, high-hat, etc.) is a combination of two cymbals and a pedal, all mounted on a metal stand. It is a part of the standard drum kit used by drummers in many styles of music including rock music, rock, popular music, pop, jazz, an ...
), this adds to the constant bias causing magnetic saturation on the tape. Dynamic, or adaptive, biasing automatically reduces the bias signal in the presence of strong high-frequency signals, making it possible to record at a higher signal level. The original Dolby HX, for ''Headroom eXtension'', was invented in 1979 by Kenneth Gundry of Dolby Laboratories, and was rejected by the industry for its inherent flaws.
Bang & Olufsen Bang & Olufsen (B&O) is a Danish high-end consumer electronics company that designs and manufactures audio products, television sets, and telephones. It was founded in 1925 by Peter Bang and Svend Olufsen, who designed a radio to work with al ...
continued work in the same direction, which resulted in a 1981 patent (EP 0046410) by Jørgen Selmer Jensen. Bang & Olufsen immediately licensed HX-Pro to Dolby Laboratories, stipulating a priority period of several years for use in consumer products, to protect their own Beocord 9000 cassette tape deck. By the middle of the 1980s the Bang & Olufsen system, marketed through Dolby Laboratories, became an industry standard under the name of Dolby HX Pro. HX-Pro only applies during the recording process. The improved signal-to-noise ratio is available no matter which tape deck the tape is played back on, and therefore HX-Pro is not a noise-reduction system in the same way as Dolby A, B, C & S, although it does help to improve noise reduction encode/decode tracking accuracy by reducing tape non-linearity. Some record companies issued HX-Pro pre-recorded cassette tapes during the late 1980s and early 1990s.


Technological trends

The widespread proliferation of
digital audio Digital audio is a representation of sound recorded in, or converted into, digital form. In digital audio, the sound wave of the audio signal is typically encoded as numerical samples in a continuous sequence. For example, in CD audio, samp ...
in
professional A professional is a member of a profession or any person who works in a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and sk ...
and consumer applications (e.g.
compact disc The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings. In August 1982, the first compact disc was manufactured. It was then released in O ...
s,
music download A music download (commonly referred to as a digital download) is the digital transfer of music via the Internet into a device capable of decoding and playing it, such as a personal computer, portable media player, MP3 player or smartphone. Th ...
, music streaming) has made analog audio production less prevalent and therefore changed Dolby's focus on
Dolby Vision Dolby Vision is a set of technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories for high dynamic range (HDR) video. It covers content creation, distribution, and playback. It includes dynamic metadata that are used to adjust and optimize each frame of the ...
, but Dolby's analog noise reduction systems are still widely used in niche analog production environments.


See also

*
Dolby SR The Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) noise reduction format was developed by Dolby Laboratories and has been in common use in professional audio since 1986 and in cinema audio since the late 1980s. It is a revised version of Dolby's earlier format ...
(Spectral Recording) * Dynamic Noise Reduction (DNR), a playback-only noise reduction system often confused with Dolby * dbx (noise reduction), a competing system * High Com, a competing system


References


External links


Dolby Laboratories, Inc.

''Some Not Well Known Aspects of Analog Tape'' -- concerning Dolby-HX/HX-Pro, AES 1990 March, Arndt Klingelnberg

Overview of Dolby and other noise reduction systems, Richard Hess
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dolby Noise-Reduction System Dolby Laboratories Noise reduction systems Sound recording American inventions Audiovisual introductions in 1965 American brands