In the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

, deaf culture was born in

Connecticut Connecticut () is the southernmost state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York (state), New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the ...

in 1817 at the

American School for the Deaf The American School for the Deaf (ASD), originally ''The American Asylum, At Hartford, For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf'', is the oldest permanent school for the deaf in the United States, and the first school for children with dis ...

, when a deaf teacher from France,

Laurent Clerc Louis Laurent Marie Clerc (; 26 December 1785 – 18 July 1869) was a French teacher called "The Apostle of the Deaf in America" and was regarded as the most renowned deaf person in American Deaf History. He was taught by Abbé Sicard and de ...

, was recruited by Thomas Gallaudet to help found the new institution. Under the guidance and instruction of Clerc in language and ways of living, deaf American students began to evolve their own strategies for communication and for living, which became the kernel for the development of American Deaf culture.

Introduction

A Deaf American is defined as a member of the

American Sign Language American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural language that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States of America and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expre ...

(ASL) linguistic minority. Though they are medically deaf, children of Deaf people and a few

hearing Hearing, or auditory perception, is the ability to perceive sounds through an organ, such as an ear, by detecting vibrations as periodic changes in the pressure of a surrounding medium. The academic field concerned with hearing is audit ...

people who learn ASL can become adopted into the wider Deaf community. Inversely, ''Deaf American'' is not inclusive to all people with

hearing loss Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear. Hearing loss may be present at birth or acquired at any time afterwards. Hearing loss may occur in one or both ears. In children, hearing problems can affect the ability to acquire spoken l ...

but only those who use ASL as their primary language.

Terminology

''deaf'' and ''Deaf''

In 1972, Professor James Woodward, co-director of the Centre for Sign Linguistics and Deaf Studies at the

Chinese University of Hong Kong The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) is a public research university in Ma Liu Shui, Hong Kong, formally established in 1963 by a charter granted by the Legislative Council of Hong Kong. It is the territory's second-oldest university and ...

since 2004, proposed a distinction between deafness and the Deaf culture. He suggested using ''

deaf Deafness has varying definitions in cultural and medical contexts. In medical contexts, the meaning of deafness is hearing loss that precludes a person from understanding spoken language, an audiological condition. In this context it is written ...

'' (written with a lower case ''d'') to refer to the audiological condition of deafness, and ''Deaf'' (written with an upper case ''D'') to refer to Deaf culture. A U.S. state regulation from the

Colorado Department of Human Services The Colorado Department of Human Services (CDHS) is the principal department of the Colorado state government that operates the state's social services. It has its headquarters in Denver. and to some extent in other languages. The two terms are also widely used to refer to distinct but partially overlapping groups of people: deaf people (those with significant hearing loss) vs. Deaf people (those who identify with Deaf culture and use a sign language as a primary means of communication). Not everyone makes this distinction, however; some point out that there are many ways to be "deaf" and a simple two-way distinction is too confining.

"People-first" language rejected

In Deaf culture,

person-first language People-first language (PFL), also called person-first language, is a type of linguistic prescription which puts a person before a diagnosis, describing what condition a person "has" rather than asserting what a person "is". It is intended to av ...

(i.e., ''person who is deaf'', ''person who is hard of hearing'') has long been rejected since being culturally Deaf is seen as a source of positive identity and pride. Instead, Deaf culture uses Deaf-first language: ''Deaf person'' or ''hard-of-hearing person''. Capital D-''Deaf'' is as stated prior, is referred to as a student who first identifies as that. Lower case d-''deaf'' is where a person has hearing loss: typically, those that consider themselves deaf, first and foremost prior to any other identity.

''Hearing-impaired'' and ''hard-of-hearing''

Hearing people may use the term ''

hearing-impaired Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear. Hearing loss may be present at birth or acquired at any time afterwards. Hearing loss may occur in one or both ears. In children, hearing problems can affect the ability to acquire spoken ...

'', perhaps thinking it is more polite than ''deaf'', but Deaf people tend to reject it, for a variety of reasons. It is more likely to be used for people with a mild or moderate hearing loss or for people who have acquired deafness in adulthood rather than by those who have grown up Deaf. By contrast, those who identify with the Deaf culture movement typically reject the label ''hearing-impaired'' and other labels that imply that deafness is a pathological condition, viewing it instead as a focus of pride. Further, the term focuses entirely on the physical condition of deafness, while ignoring the linguistic and cultural distinction between those who sign and identify with Deaf culture, and those who do not. The term ''hard-of-hearing'' is preferred over ''hearing-impaired'' within the American Deaf community and accepted as a neutral term without negative or pathological connotations, with no implication about age of onset. It generally refers to people who depend primarily on a spoken language for communication or who have mild or moderate hearing loss. An ASL term exists and is roughly equivalent to the English term.

Deprecated terms: ''deaf-mute'' and ''deaf and dumb''

Various terms once used to refer to the deaf are no longer used and may be viewed either as out-of-date, or an insult, such as ''deaf-mute'', or ''deaf and dumb''. Formerly these terms were neutral, or at least accepted, as can be seen by nicknames such as baseball player Dummy Hoy, or the former names of educational institutions, since renamed, such as

Pennsylvania School for the Deaf The Pennsylvania School for the Deaf is the third-oldest school of its kind in the United States. Its founder, David G. Seixas (1788–1864), was a Philadelphia crockery maker-dealer who became concerned with the plight of impoverished deaf childr ...

(formerly

Pennsylvania Institute for the Deaf and Dumb The Pennsylvania School for the Deaf is the third-oldest school of its kind in the United States. Its founder, David G. Seixas (1788–1864), was a Philadelphia crockery maker-dealer who became concerned with the plight of impoverished deaf childr ...

Gallaudet University Gallaudet University ( ) is a private university, private University charter#Federal, federally chartered research university in Washington, D.C. for the education of the Hearing loss, deaf and hard of hearing. It was founded in 1864 as a gramma ...

(formerly National Deaf-Mute College). ''Deaf-mute'' is a literal translation of the French which was already in use in France in the 19th century, in the works of the founder of the deaf school in Paris, as well as in the name of the school, the '' Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets à Paris''. Since some Deaf people can also speak, the term ''deaf-mute'' is not accurate. The word ''dumb'' had meant 'speechless' for centuries in English before it gained the sense of 'stupid' as a secondary meaning in the 19th century, but since 'stupid' has now become the primary meaning, even though the term is still widely understood in the secondary meaning in the particular expression, it is now unsuitable to refer to Deaf people.

Language

The history of Deaf Americans, for the most part, parallels that of

(ASL). Although Deaf American identity is now strongly tied to the use of American Sign Language, its roots can be found in early deaf communities on the American East Coast, including those that communicated using Martha's Vineyard Sign Language. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language bloomed from necessity due to a high number of hereditary deaf Americans in the area. The language became so popular, even the hearing Vineyard workers adopted it. The Vineyard language contributed hundreds of signs to the modern ASL utilized today. An important event in the history of Deaf Americans was the introduction of the methodical sign system of the Abbé de l'Epée to deaf children at the

in 1817 by

, a French signer who accompanied Thomas Gallaudet to become the first teacher at the school. This tradition continued until 1880 when

oralism Oralism is the education of deaf students through oral language by using lip reading, speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech.Through Deaf Eyes. Diane Garey, Lawrence R. Hott. DVD, PBS (Direct), 2007. Oralism ca ...

(promoting speaking) began to replace

manualism Manualism is a method of education of deaf students using sign language within the classroom. Manualism arose in the late 18th century with the advent of free public schools for the deaf in Europe. These teaching methods were brought over to the ...

(promoting signing) as the dominant approach to

deaf education Deaf education is the education of students with any degree of hearing loss or deafness. This may involve, but does not always, individually-planned, systematically-monitored teaching methods, adaptive materials, accessible settings, and othe ...

, almost obliterating ASL and deaf culture in America. Oralism was the main philosophy in deaf education until 1965 when the linguist William Stokoe argued that ASL should be regarded as a full language with all of the expressive power of any oral language. This gradually led to an increase in the respectability and use of signing.

Deaf art

The accomplishments of Deaf artists have been noted with many factors contributing to a natural attraction to visual arts. Three factors have been noted: biological factor, isolation factor, and the Deaf essence factor.

As "people of the eye," Deaf people are naturally attracted to the visual arts.

A desire to express themselves to the world through visually accessible medium may be a reason for such a strong Deaf artist community. Due to frustration with limited communication in home and school life (leading to feelings of isolation), many Deaf artists report that art creates a way for them to freely express their thoughts and feelings. Similar to the art of other marginalized and oppressed groups, Deaf art tends to be a vessel through which one's Deaf identity (Deaf essence) can manifest. The American Deaf artist

Christine Sun Kim Christine Sun Kim (born 1980) is an American sound artist based in Berlin. Working predominantly in drawing, performance, and video, Kim's practice considers how sound operates in society. Musical notation, written language, American Sign Lang ...

expresses her frustration with the hearing world using visual art, interactive installations, and performance art.

De'VIA (Deaf View/Image Art)

Proposed by Deaf artists in 1989 at the Deaf Way festival, the concept of De'VIA represents the elements found in the Deaf art movement. Betty Miller and Chuck Baird are the most notable founders of the De'VIA art movement.

Difference between Deaf artists and De'VIA

Deaf artists create and use art in any form and are held to the same standards as any other artist. De'VIA is created when the Deaf artists wants to express their Deaf identity and/or Deaf experience through their art. It is possible for Deaf artists not to work within De'VIA.

Themes of resistance and affirmation

Many De'Via works can be defined as resistance art, which is a recent phenomenon in Deaf culture. Betty Miller's piece ''Ameslan Prohibited'' (1972) depicts two shackled hands and chopped fingertips; this powerful image encouraged more Deaf people to reveal their childhood experiences of

audism Audism as described by deaf activists is a form of discrimination directed against deaf people, which may include those diagnosed as deaf from birth, or otherwise. Tom L. Humphries coined the term in his doctoral dissertation in 1975, but it di ...

and oralism through art. In many of Chuck Baird's artwork, he cleverly incorporates ASL handshapes into the shapes of objects to which they refer. For example, his piece titled ''America'' has the stripes of the U.S.A. flag incorporated into the sign for AMERICA. De'VIA provides scenes of meaningful aspects of being Deaf that affirm the rich lives that Deaf people enjoy.

Norms of Deaf American culture

* The use of

(ASL) is favored over secondary codes such as

Signed Exact English Signing Exact English (''SEE-II'', sometimes Signed Exact English) is a system of manual communication that strives to be an exact representation of English vocabulary and grammar. It is one of a number of such systems in use in English-speaking co ...

(SEE). ASL is a separate language from English and the Deaf community rejects English-like signing. * It is important to maintain a high awareness of all that is going on in one's environment and to help keep others similarly informed because "deaf people do not have access to the noises that clue us in to what others are doing when out of view". It is common to provide detailed information when leaving early or arriving late and withholding such information is considered rude. * Introductions are an important aspect of Deaf culture. This exhibits the effort to find common ground. "The search for connections is the search for connectedness." * Time is also considered in a different light for the Deaf community. Showing up early to large-scale events, such as lectures, is typical. This is motivated by the need to get a seat that provides the best visual clarity for the deaf person. It is also common to be late to social events such as meeting friends for coffee or play dates with children. This could have stemmed from the fact that until recent years, with the creation of text messaging, it was nearly impossible to inform a friend when running late. However, at Deaf social events, such as parties, it is common for Deaf people to stay for elongated amounts of time, for the solidarity and conversations at social gatherings for the Deaf are valued by Deaf culture. This can be explained by the fact that the Deaf community stretches throughout the entire country, so to gather means that a lot of 'catching up' is necessary. * A positive attitude toward deafness is also expected within the Deaf community. In Deaf culture, deafness is not considered a condition that needs to be fixed (see Medical model of disability). ASL also holds great importance to the Deaf community and its identity: it represents the liberation of language minority, oppressed for many years by oralist teachings.

Attitudes toward cochlear implants

Within Deaf communities, there is strong opposition to the use of

cochlear implants A cochlear implant (CI) is a surgically implanted neuroprosthesis that provides a person who has moderate-to-profound sensorineural hearing loss with sound perception. With the help of therapy, cochlear implants may allow for improved speech unde ...

and sometimes also

hearing aids A hearing aid is a device designed to improve hearing by making sound audible to a person with hearing loss. Hearing aids are classified as medical devices in most countries, and regulated by the respective regulations. Small audio amplifiers su ...

and similar technologies. This is often justified in terms of a rejection of the view that

deafness Deafness has varying definitions in cultural and medical contexts. In medical contexts, the meaning of deafness is hearing loss that precludes a person from understanding spoken language, an audiological condition. In this context it is written ...

, as a condition, is something that needs to be 'fixed'. Others argue that this technology also threatens the continued existence of Deaf culture, but Kathryn Woodcock argues that it is a greater threat to Deaf culture "to reject prospective members just because they used to hear, because their parents chose an implant for them, because they find environmental sound useful, etc." Cochlear implants may improve the perception of sound for suitable implantees, but they do not reverse deafness, or create a normal perception of sounds.

Attitudes toward oralism as a teaching method

There is strong opposition within Deaf communities to the oralist method of teaching deaf children to speak and lip read with limited or no use of sign language in the classroom. The method is intended to make it easier for deaf children to integrate into hearing communities, but the benefits of learning in such an environment are disputed. The use of

sign language Sign languages (also known as signed languages) are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning, instead of spoken words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination with non-manual markers. Sign ...

is also central to Deaf

identity Identity may refer to: * Identity document * Identity (philosophy) * Identity (social science) * Identity (mathematics) Arts and entertainment Film and television * ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film * ''Identity'' (2003 film), an ...

and attempts to limit its use are viewed as an attack.

References

* Ethnologue, "Ethnologue Report on American Sign Language," http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ase