Dvaravati

Dvaravati () was a medieval Mon political principality from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known as central Thailand, and was speculated to be a succeeding state of Lang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu (). It was described by Chinese pilgrims in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom named ''To-lo-po-ti'' situated to the west of Isanapura (Cambodia), to the east of Sri Ksetra (Burma), and adjoined Pan Pan in the South. Its northern border met ''Jiā Luó Shě Fú'' (), which was speculated to be either ''Kalasapura'', situated along the coast of the Bay of Bengal somewhere between Tavoy and Rangoon, or Canasapura in modern northeast Thailand. Dvaravati sent the first embassy to the Chinese court around 605–616, and then in 756. Text:

Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration of principalities of Mon people. The Mon migrants as maritime traders might have brought the Dvaravati Civilization to the Menam Valley around 3000 BCE, which continued to the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period that spans the 4th to 5th centuries, and perhaps earlier.

The center of the early Davaravati was speculated to be Ayojjhapura (present-day Si Thep) but the power was shifted to the lower basin in Lavo's Lavapura in the 10th and 11th centuries. The rise of the Angkor in the lower Mekong basin around the 11th–13th centuries, the Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula conquered of Tambralinga's king Sujita who also seized Lavo in the mid-10th century, the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation of Lavo, as well as the Pagan invasion of Menam Valley around the mid-10th century. All of these potentially are the causes of the fall of the Dvaravati civilization.

History

The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be U Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon Pathom, Phong Tuk, Si Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others. The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed in Sanskrit '' śrī dvāravatī''. The Sanskrit word ''dvāravatī'' literally means "that which has gates".Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., According to the inscription N.Th. 21 found in 2019 in Wat Phra Ngam in Nakhon Pathom, dated the 6th century, three regional cities were mentioned, including Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅga or Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅgapratipura, then Hastināpurī and Dvāravatī, which made Nakhon Pathom where the fractions was discovered probably the center of Dvāravatī.

The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations in Chan Sen and Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site of U-Thong indicate that the starting point of the tradition of Dvaravati culture possibly dates as far back as 200 CE. Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however, that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries. Dvaravati culture and influence also spread into Isan and parts of lowland Laos from the sixth century onward. Key sites include Mueang Fa Daet in Kalasin Province, in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, and many others.

In the book of ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'', dating to the late 7th century, and the 629–645 journey of a Chinese monk, Xuanzang, placed Dvaravati to the east of Kamalanka or ''Lang-ya-hsiu'' and west of Isanapura, if Kamalanka was centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom as several scholars cited, thus, Dvaravati must be moved to the eastern side of the central plain. This conforms with the location provided in the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled in 1005, says that Dvaravati was to the west of Chenla and the east of the ''Ge Luo She Fen'' Kingdom (), which was proposed to be centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, same as Kamalanka, by Thai historian Piriya Krairiksh, who also identified this kingdom as the ''Gē Luó'' Kingdom () in the New Book of Tang.

Chinese historian, Chen Jiarong (), claims that the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom in the '' Cefu Yuangui'' and '' Book of Sui'' was Dvaravati principality. Together with the Cān Bàn Kingdom, they established relations with Zhenla to the east via royal intermarriage after the annexation of Funan in 627. Subsequently, faced Tou Yuan to the northwest and effectively established it as a vassal of Dvaravati in 647. This potentially leads the ''Old Book of Tang'' to assert that the Pyu Kingdoms bordered Zhenla to the east.

A mixed Sanskrit– Khmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes of Canasapura, one of the Dvaravati polities, started by a Bhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman. Further east, the Chinese Tang Huiyao mentions the kingdom of Keoi Lau Mì of the Kuy people was also influenced by Dvaravati. 新唐书 'New Book of Tang''(in Chinese) In the early 10th century, several Dvaravati polities in the Menam Valley, which were weakened by decade-long wars between two Mon kingdoms, Hariphunchai and Lavo, fell to the invasion of Tambralinga, then by the invasions of the Chola and Pagan in the late 10th century. Later, Dvaravati polities began to come under constant attacks and aggression of the Khmer Empire, and central Southeast Asia was ultimately invaded by King Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century. Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was incorporated into Lan Na.

During the decline period of Dvaravati, its succeeded polity, mentioned as Xiān () by several Chinese and Đại Việt sources, was formed in the lower Menam Basin around the 11th century. This new polity evolved into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1351. Its capital's full name also referred to Dvaravati; ''Krung Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya'' (). All former Dvaravati principalities, including Lavo, Suphannabhum, and the northern cities of the Sukhothai Kingdom, were later incorporated into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1388, 1424, and 1438, respectively.

According to the Burmese Inscription of Hsinbyushin of Ava A.D. 1768 (Serial No. 1128),Duroiselle, Charles; Archaeological Survey of Burma (1921)
''A List of Inscriptions found in Burma, Part I: The list of inscription arranged in the order of their dates.''
Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. p. 175. which was found on a bronze gun at Shwezigon Pagoda, and acquired by the Burmese in 1767, the Burmese continued to refer to Ayutthaya as Dvaravati by describing the "''conquest of Dvāravati (Siam)''" even after its fall to a Burmese invasion during the Pagan Kingdom. Several genetic studies published in the 2020s also founded the relations between the Mon people and Siamese people (Central Thai people) who were the descendants of the Ayutthaya. The Laotian also refers to Ayodhya before the traditional formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom as Dvaravati and Sri Ayodhiya Dvaravati Nakhon ().

Government

Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose gathering of chiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the upper peninsula to the riverine region of Chao Phraya River. Hinduism and Buddhism were significant. The three largest settlements appear to have been at Nakhon Pathom, Suphanburi, and Praak Sriracha, with additional centers at U Thong, Chansen, Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang Phra Rot, Lopburi, Si Mahosot, Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu Mueang, and Si Thep.

According to the Chinese record during the Tang Dynasty, Dvaravati has two vassal kingdoms, including Tou Yuan (陀垣) near the present-Chanthaburi or southern Myanmar, and an island kingdom Tanling (曇陵), whose exact location remains unknown.

A study on Dvaravati settlement patterns before the 14th century in the upper Chi-Mun River basin suggests that Dvaravati might have been made up of several kingdoms linked by trade networks and centered at supra-regional level settlements, such as Dong Mueang Aem, Phimai, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, , Non Mueang, and Si Thep.

Rulers

The excavation in several sites found silver coins dated the 7th century that mentioned the king and queen of the kingdom written in Sanskrit with Pallava script: ''śrīdvaravatīsvarapunya'' (King Sridvaravati, who has great merit) and ''śrīdvaravatīsvaradevīpuṇya'' (the goddess of the meritorious King Dvaravati). In addition, the copper plate dating from the 6th–mid 7th centuries found at U Thong also mentions King Harshavarman (หรรษวรมัน), who was assumed by Jean Boisselier to be one of the kings of Dvaravati, while  George Cœdès considered the plate was brought from the Khmer Empire, and the name mentioned might be the Khmer king as well. However, the periods seem unrelated since King Harshavarman I of Khmer reigned from 910–923, 200 years later than the age of the inscription,"Book Review: Voices from S-21"
. ''The American Historical Review'' (October 2002). and Harshavarman I's grandfather was Indravarman I, not Isanavarman as the inscription mentioned.

The following is a list of rulers of Dvaravati.

Art

Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by Indian culture, and played an important role in introducing Buddhism and particularly Buddhist art to the region. Stucco motifs on the religious monuments include garudas, makaras, and Nāgas. Additionally, groups of musicians have been portrayed with their instruments, prisoners, females with their attendants, soldiers indicative of social life. Votive tablets have also been found, also moulds for tin amulets, pottery, terracotta trays, and a bronze chandelier, earrings, bells and cymbals.

Note

References

Further reading

*Robert L. Brown, ''The Dvaravati Wheels of the Law and the Indianization of South East Asia''. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol. 18, Fontein, Jan, ed. Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, 1996.
*Elizabeth Lyons, "Dvaravati, a Consideration of its Formative Period", R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), ''Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography,'' Oxford University Press, New York, 1979, pp. 352–359.
*Dhida Saraya, ''(Sri) Dvaravati: the Initial Phase of Siam's History'', Bangkok, Muang Boran, 1999,
*Swearer, Donald K. and Sommai Premchit. ''The Legend of Queen Cama: Bodhiramsi's Camadevivamsa, a Translation and Commentary''. New York: State University of New York Press, 1998.
*สุรพล ดำริห์กุล, ''ประวัติศาสตร์และศิลปะหริภุญไชย'', กรุงเทพฯ: สำนักพิมพ์เมืองโบราณ, 2004, .
* Pierre Dupont, ''The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvāravatī,'' translated from the French with updates and additional appendices, figures and plans by Joyanto K.Sen, Bangkok, White Lotus Press, 2006.
* Jean Boisselier, "Ū-Thòng et son importance pour l'histoire de Thaïlande tNouvelles données sur l'histoire ancienne de Thaïlande", ''Bōrānwitthayā rư̄ang MỮang ʻŪ Thō̜ng,'' Bangkok, Krom Sinlapakon, 2509 966 pp. 161–176.
* Peter Skilling, "Dvaravati: Recent Revelations and Research", ''Dedications to Her Royal Highness Princess Galyani Vadhana Krom Luang Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra on her 80th birthday,'' Bangkok, The Siam Society, 2003, pp. 87–112.
* Natasha Eilenberg, M.C. Subhadradis Diskul, Robert L. Brown (editors), ''Living a Life in Accord with Dhamma: Papers in Honor of Professor Jean Boisselier on his Eightieth Birthday,'' Bangkok, Silpakorn University, 1997.
* C. Landes, "Pièce de l’époque romaine trouvé à U-Thong, Thaïlande", ''The Silpakorn Journal,'' vol.26, no.1, 1982, pp. 113–115.
* John Guy, ''Lost Kingdoms: Hindu Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast,'' New York and Bangkok, Metropolitan Museum of Art and River Books, 2014, p. 32.
* Wārunī ʻŌsathārom. ''Mư̄ang Suphan bon sēnthāng kan̄plīanplǣng thāng prawattisāt Phutthasattawat thī 8 – ton Phutthasattawat thī 25'' (History, development, and geography of the ancient city of Suphan Buri Province, Central Thailand, 8th–25th B.E.), Samnakphim Mahāwitthayālai Thammasāt, Krung Thēp, 2547.
*

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