
Satellite television is a service that delivers
television
Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. Additionally, the term can refer to a physical television set rather than the medium of transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, ...
programming to viewers by relaying it from a
communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a Transponder (satellite communications), transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a Rad ...
orbiting the Earth directly to the viewer's location.
[ITU Radio Regulations, Section IV. Radio Stations and Systems – Article 1.39, definition: ''Broadcasting-satellite service''] The signals are received via an outdoor
parabolic antenna commonly referred to as a
satellite dish and a
low-noise block downconverter.

A satellite receiver decodes the desired
television program
A television show, TV program (), or simply a TV show, is the general reference to any content produced for viewing on a television set that is broadcast via Terrestrial television, over-the-air, Satellite television, satellite, and cable te ...
for viewing on a
television set. Receivers can be external
set-top box
A set-top box (STB), also known as a cable converter box, cable box, receiver, or simply box, and historically television decoder or a converter, is an information appliance device that generally contains a Tuner (radio)#Television, TV tuner inpu ...
es, or a built-in
television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services. It is usually the only television available in many remote geographic areas without
terrestrial television
Terrestrial television, or over-the-air television (OTA) is a type of television broadcasting in which the content is signal transmission, transmitted via radio waves from the terrestrial (Earth-based) transmitter of a TV station to a TV rece ...
or
cable television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with bro ...
service. Different receivers are required for the two types. Some transmissions and channels are unencrypted and therefore
free-to-air
Free-to-air (FTA) services are television (TV) and radio services broadcast in unencrypted form, allowing any person with the appropriate receiving equipment to receive the signal and view or listen to the content without requiring a subscri ...
, while many other channels are transmitted with encryption.
Free-to-view channels are encrypted but not charged-for, while
pay television
Pay television, also known as subscription television, premium television or, when referring to an individual service, a premium channel, refers to Subscription business model, subscription-based television services, usually provided by multichan ...
requires the viewer to subscribe and pay a monthly fee to receive the programming.
Modern systems signals are relayed from a communications satellite on the
X band (8–12 GHz) or
Ku band (12–18 GHz) frequencies requiring only a small dish less than a meter in diameter.
The first satellite TV systems were a now-obsolete type known as
television receive-only. These systems received weaker analog signals transmitted in the
C-band (4–8 GHz) from
FSS type satellites, requiring the use of large 2–3-meter dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.
Early systems used
analog signals, but modern ones use
digital signals which allow transmission of the modern television standard
high-definition television
High-definition television (HDTV) describes a television or video system which provides a substantially higher image resolution than the previous generation of technologies. The term has been used since at least 1933; in more recent times, it ref ...
, due to the significantly improved
spectral efficiency of digital broadcasting. As of 2022,
Star One D2 from Brazil is the only remaining satellite broadcasting in analog signals.
Technology
The satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a
geostationary orbit
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
above the earth's
equator
The equator is the circle of latitude that divides Earth into the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Southern Hemisphere, Southern Hemispheres of Earth, hemispheres. It is an imaginary line located at 0 degrees latitude, about in circumferen ...
. The advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital period equals the rotation rate of the Earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. Thus the satellite dish antenna which receives the signal can be aimed permanently at the location of the satellite and does not have to track a moving satellite. A few systems instead use a highly elliptical orbit with
inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and an orbital period of about twelve hours, known as a
Molniya orbit.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an
uplink facility. Uplink satellite dishes are very large, as much as in diameter. The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the
transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder re-transmits the signals back to Earth at a different frequency (a process known as translation, used to avoid interference with the uplink signal), typically in the 10.7-12.7 GHz band, but some still transmit in the
C-band (4–8 GHz),
Ku-band (12–18 GHz), or both. The leg of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving Earth station is called the downlink.
A typical satellite has up to 32
Ku-band or 24
C-band transponders, or more for
Ku/
C hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz. Each geostationary
C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2° longitude from the next satellite to avoid interference; for
Ku the spacing can be 1°. This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 = 180 geostationary
C-band satellites or 360/1 = 360 geostationary
Ku-band satellites.
C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while
Ku-band transmission is affected by
rain
Rain is a form of precipitation where water drop (liquid), droplets that have condensation, condensed from Water vapor#In Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric water vapor fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is res ...
(as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this particular frequency). The latter is even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds. On occasion,
sun outage will occur when the sun lines up directly behind the geostationary satellite to which the receiving antenna is pointed.
The downlink satellite signal, quite weak after traveling the great distance (see
path loss), is collected with a
parabolic receiving dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point. Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a
feedhorn or collector. The feedhorn is a section of
waveguide with a flared front-end that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and conducts them to a probe or pickup connected to a
low-noise block downconverter (LNB). The LNB amplifies the signals and
downconverts them to a lower block of
intermediate frequencies (IF), usually in the
L-band.
The original
C-band satellite television systems used a
low-noise amplifier (LNA) connected to the feedhorn at the focal point of the dish.
The amplified signal, still at the higher microwave frequencies, had to be fed via very expensive low-loss 50-ohm impedance
gas filled hardline coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced ), is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner Electrical conductor, conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting Electromagnetic shielding, shield, with the two separated by a dielectric (Insulat ...
with relatively complex
N-connectors to an indoor receiver or, in other designs, a downconverter (a mixer and a voltage-tuned oscillator with some filter circuitry) for downconversion to an intermediate frequency.
The channel selection was controlled typically by a voltage tuned oscillator with the tuning voltage being fed via a separate cable to the headend, but this design evolved.
Designs for
microstrip-based converters for
amateur radio
Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is the use of the radio frequency radio spectrum, spectrum for purposes of non-commercial exchange of messages, wireless experimentation, self-training, private recreation, radiosport, contesting, and emer ...
frequencies were adapted for the 4 GHz
C-band.
Central to these designs was concept of block downconversion of a range of frequencies to a lower, more easily handled IF.

The advantages of using an LNB are that cheaper cable can be used to connect the indoor receiver to the satellite television dish and LNB, and that the technology for handling the signal at
L-band and UHF was far cheaper than that for handling the signal at
C-band frequencies.
The shift to cheaper technology from the hardline and N-connectors of the early
C-band systems to the cheaper and simpler 75-ohm cable and
F-connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in reality, modified
UHF television tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down conversion to a lower
intermediate frequency
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier wave is shifted as an intermediate step in Transmission (telecommunications), transmission or reception. The intermediate frequency is ...
centered on 70 MHz, where it was demodulated.
This shift allowed the satellite television
DTH industry to change from being a largely hobbyist one where only small numbers of systems costing thousands of US dollars were built, to a far more commercial one of mass production.
In the United States, service providers use the
intermediate frequency
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier wave is shifted as an intermediate step in Transmission (telecommunications), transmission or reception. The intermediate frequency is ...
ranges of 950–2150 MHz to carry the signal from the LNBF at the dish down to the receiver. This allows for the transmission of UHF signals along the same span of coaxial wire at the same time. In some applications (
DirecTV
DirecTV, LLC is an American Multichannel television in the United States, multichannel video programming distributor based in El Segundo, California. Originally launched on June 17, 1994, its primary service is a digital Satellite television, s ...
AU9-S and AT-9), ranges of the lower
B-band and 2250–3000 MHz, are used. Newer LNBFs in use by DirecTV, called SWM (Single Wire Multiswitch), are used to implement
single cable distribution and use a wider frequency range of 2–2150 MHz.
The satellite receiver or
set-top box
A set-top box (STB), also known as a cable converter box, cable box, receiver, or simply box, and historically television decoder or a converter, is an information appliance device that generally contains a Tuner (radio)#Television, TV tuner inpu ...
demodulates and converts the signals to the desired form (outputs for television, audio, data, etc.). Often, the receiver includes the capability to selectively
unscramble or
decrypt the received signal to provide premium services to some subscribers; the receiver is then called an
integrated receiver/decoder or IRD. Low-loss cable (e.g.
RG-6,
RG-11, etc.) is used to connect the receiver to the LNBF or LNB.
RG-59
RG-59/U is a specific type of coaxial cable, often used for low-power video and Radio frequency, RF signal connections. The cable has a characteristic impedance of 75 Ohm (unit), ohms, and a capacitance of around 20pF/ft (60pF/m). The 75 oh ...
is not recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but may work in some circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire, signal levels, cable length, etc.
A practical problem relating to home satellite reception is that an LNB can basically only handle a single receiver.
This is because the LNB is translating two different
circular polarizations (right-hand and left-hand) and, in the case of K-band, two different frequency bands (lower and upper) to the same frequency range on the cable.
Depending on which frequency and polarization a transponder is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific "channel".
This is handled by the receiver using the
DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode.
If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish, a so-called
multiswitch will have to be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB.
There are also LNBs available with a multi-switch already integrated.
This problem becomes more complicated when several receivers are to use several dishes (or several LNBs mounted in a single dish) pointing to different satellites.
A common solution for consumers wanting to access multiple satellites is to deploy a single dish with a single LNB and to rotate the dish using an electric motor. The axis of rotation has to be set up in the north–south direction and, depending on the geographical location of the dish, have a specific vertical tilt. Set up properly the motorized dish when turned will sweep across all possible positions for satellites lined up along the
geostationary orbit
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
directly above the equator. The dish will then be capable of receiving any geostationary satellite that is visible at the specific location, i.e. that is above the horizon. The
DiSEqC protocol has been extended to encompass commands for steering dish rotors.
There are five major components in a satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast center, the satellite, the
satellite dish, and the
receiver. "Direct broadcast" satellites used for transmission of satellite television signals are generally in
geostationary orbit
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
above the earth's
equator
The equator is the circle of latitude that divides Earth into the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Southern Hemisphere, Southern Hemispheres of Earth, hemispheres. It is an imaginary line located at 0 degrees latitude, about in circumferen ...
.
The reason for using this orbit is that the satellite circles the Earth at the same rate as the Earth rotates, so the satellite appears at a fixed point in the sky. Thus satellite dishes can be aimed permanently at that point, and do not need a tracking system to turn to follow a moving satellite. A few satellite TV systems use satellites in a
Molniya orbit, a highly
elliptical orbit with
inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and an orbital period of about twelve hours.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an
uplink facility.
Uplink facilities transmit the signal to the satellite over a narrow beam of
microwaves, typically in the
C-band frequency range due to its resistance to
rain fade.
Uplink satellite dishes are very large, often as much as in diameter
to achieve accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite, to improve reliability.
The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the
transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite.
The transponder then converts the signals to
Ku band, a process known as "translation," and transmits them back to earth to be received by home satellite stations.

The downlinked satellite signal, weaker after traveling the great distance (see
path loss), is collected by using a rooftop
parabolic receiving dish ("
satellite dish"), which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point.
Mounted on brackets at the dish's
focal point is a
feedhorn which passes the signals through a
waveguide to a device called a
low-noise block converter (LNB) or low noise converter (LNC) attached to the horn.
The LNB amplifies the weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in which the satellite television signals are transmitted, and converts the block of frequencies to a lower frequency range in the
L-band range.
The signal is then passed through a
coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced ), is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner Electrical conductor, conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting Electromagnetic shielding, shield, with the two separated by a dielectric (Insulat ...
into the residence to the satellite television receiver, a
set-top box
A set-top box (STB), also known as a cable converter box, cable box, receiver, or simply box, and historically television decoder or a converter, is an information appliance device that generally contains a Tuner (radio)#Television, TV tuner inpu ...
next to the television.
The reason for using the LNB to do the frequency translation at the dish is so that the signal can be carried into the residence using cheap
coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced ), is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner Electrical conductor, conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting Electromagnetic shielding, shield, with the two separated by a dielectric (Insulat ...
. To transport the signal into the house at its original
Ku band microwave frequency would require an expensive
waveguide, a metal pipe to carry the radio waves.
The cable connecting the receiver to the LNB are of the low loss type
RG-6, quad shield RG-6, or RG-11.
RG-59
RG-59/U is a specific type of coaxial cable, often used for low-power video and Radio frequency, RF signal connections. The cable has a characteristic impedance of 75 Ohm (unit), ohms, and a capacitance of around 20pF/ft (60pF/m). The 75 oh ...
is not recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but will work in many circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire.
The shift to more affordable technology from the 50ohm impedance cable and
N-connectors of the early
C-band systems to the cheaper 75ohm technology and
F-connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in reality, modified
UHF television tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down conversion to another lower
intermediate frequency
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier wave is shifted as an intermediate step in Transmission (telecommunications), transmission or reception. The intermediate frequency is ...
centered on 70 MHz where it was demodulated.
An LNB can only handle a single receiver.
This is due to the fact that the LNB is mapping two different circular polarisations – right hand and left hand – and in the case of the
Ku-band two different reception bands – lower and upper – to one and the same frequency band on the cable, and is a practical problem for home satellite reception.
Depending on which frequency a transponder is transmitting at and on what polarisation it is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific desired program on a specific transponder.
The receiver uses the
DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode, which handles this.
If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish a so-called
multiswitch must be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB.
There are also LNBs available with a multi-switch already integrated.
This problem becomes more complicated when several receivers use several dishes or several LNBs mounted in a single dish are aimed at different satellites.
The
set-top box
A set-top box (STB), also known as a cable converter box, cable box, receiver, or simply box, and historically television decoder or a converter, is an information appliance device that generally contains a Tuner (radio)#Television, TV tuner inpu ...
selects the channel desired by the user by filtering that channel from the multiple channels received from the satellite, converts the signal to a lower
intermediate frequency
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier wave is shifted as an intermediate step in Transmission (telecommunications), transmission or reception. The intermediate frequency is ...
,
decrypts the
encrypted signal,
demodulates the radio signal and sends the resulting video signal to the television through a cable.
To decrypt the signal the receiver box must be "activated" by the satellite company. If the customer fails to pay their monthly bill the box is "deactivated" by a signal from the company, and the system will not work until the company reactivates it. Some receivers are capable of
decrypting the received signal itself. These receivers are called
integrated receiver/decoders or IRDs.
Analog television which was distributed via satellite was usually sent scrambled or unscrambled in
NTSC,
PAL, or
SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is
frequency modulated and is converted from an FM signal to what is referred to as
baseband. This baseband comprises the video signal and the audio subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further demodulated to provide a raw audio signal.
Later signals were digitized television signals or multiplex of signals, typically
QPSK. In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is based on open standards such as
MPEG and
DVB-S/
DVB-S2 or
ISDB-S.
The
conditional access encryption/scrambling methods include
NDS,
BISS,
Conax,
Digicipher
DigiCipher 2, or simply DCII, is a proprietary standard format of digital signal transmission and it doubles as an encryption standard with MPEG-2/MPEG-4 signal video compression used on many communications satellite television and audio signals. ...
, Irdeto,
Cryptoworks,
DG Crypt,
Beta digital,
SECA Mediaguard,
Logiways,
Nagravision,
PowerVu,
Viaccess,
Videocipher, and
VideoGuard. Many conditional access systems have been compromised.
Sun outage
An event called
sun outage occurs when the sun lines up directly behind the satellite in the field of view of the receiving satellite dish.
This happens for about a 10-minute period daily around midday, twice every year for a two-week period in the spring and fall around the
equinox. During this period, the sun is within the
main lobe of the dish's reception pattern, so the strong microwave
noise
Noise is sound, chiefly unwanted, unintentional, or harmful sound considered unpleasant, loud, or disruptive to mental or hearing faculties. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrat ...
emitted by the sun on the same frequencies used by the satellite's transponders drowns out reception.
Uses
Direct-to-home and direct broadcast satellite

Direct-to-home (DTH) can either refer to the communications satellites themselves that deliver service or the actual television service. Most satellite television customers in developed television markets get their programming through a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) provider.
Signals are transmitted using
Ku band (12 to 18 GHz) and are completely digital which allows for higher picture and sound quality.
Programming for satellite television channels comes from multiple sources and may include live studio feeds.
The broadcast center assembles and packages programming into channels for transmission and, where necessary, encrypts the channels. The signal is then sent to the
uplink where it is transmitted to the satellite. With some broadcast centers, the studios, administration and up-link are all part of the same campus.
The satellite then
translates and broadcasts the channels.
Most systems use the
DVB-S standard for transmission.
With
pay television
Pay television, also known as subscription television, premium television or, when referring to an individual service, a premium channel, refers to Subscription business model, subscription-based television services, usually provided by multichan ...
services, the data stream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment. While the underlying reception technology is similar, the pay television technology is proprietary, often consisting of a
conditional-access module and
smart card
A smart card (SC), chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC or IC card), is a card used to control access to a resource. It is typically a plastic credit card-sized card with an Embedded system, embedded integrated circuit (IC) chip. Many smart ...
. This measure assures satellite television providers that only authorized, paying
subscribers have access to pay television content but at the same time can allow
free-to-air
Free-to-air (FTA) services are television (TV) and radio services broadcast in unencrypted form, allowing any person with the appropriate receiving equipment to receive the signal and view or listen to the content without requiring a subscri ...
channels to be viewed even by the people with standard equipment available in the market.
Some countries operate satellite television services which can be received for free, without paying a subscription fee. This is called
free-to-air
Free-to-air (FTA) services are television (TV) and radio services broadcast in unencrypted form, allowing any person with the appropriate receiving equipment to receive the signal and view or listen to the content without requiring a subscri ...
satellite television.
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
is likely the leader in free-to-air with approximately 250 digital channels (including 83
HDTV
High-definition television (HDTV) describes a television or video system which provides a substantially higher image resolution than the previous generation of technologies. The term has been used since at least 1933; in more recent times, it ref ...
channels and various regional channels) broadcast from the
Astra 19.2°E satellite constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in approximately 18 million homes, as well as in any home using the ''
Sky Deutschland
Sky Deutschland GmbH, branded as Sky, is a German media company that operates a direct broadcast satellite Pay TV platform in Germany, Austria and Switzerland (through Sky Switzerland). It provides a collection of basic and premium digital su ...
'' commercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite broadcasts ceased on 30 April 2012.
The
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations of
BBC
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...
channels,
ITV channels,
Channel 4
Channel 4 is a British free-to-air public broadcast television channel owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation. It is state-owned enterprise, publicly owned but, unlike the BBC, it receives no public funding and is funded en ...
and
Channel 5) that are broadcast without encryption from the
Astra 28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any
DVB-S receiver (a
DVB-S2 receiver is required for certain high definition television services). Most of these channels are included within the
Sky
The sky is an unobstructed view upward from the planetary surface, surface of the Earth. It includes the atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere and outer space. It may also be considered a place between the ground and outer space, thus distinct from ...
EPG, and an increasing number within the
Freesat
Freesat is a British free-to-air satellite television service, first formed as a joint venture between the BBC and ITV plc and now owned by Everyone TV (itself owned by all of the four UK Public broadcasting, public service broadcasters, BBC, ...
EPG.
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
's national broadcaster,
Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS package as "
DD Free Dish", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network. It is broadcast from
GSAT-15 at 93.5°E and contains about 80 FTA channels.
While originally launched as
backhaul for their
digital terrestrial television
Digital terrestrial television (DTTV, DTT, or DTTB) is a technology for terrestrial television, in which television stations broadcast television content in a digital signal, digital format. Digital terrestrial television is a major technologica ...
service, a large number of French channels are free-to-air on satellites at 5°W, and have recently been announced as being official in-fill for the DTT network.
In North America (United States,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
and
Mexico
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
) there are over 80 FTA digital channels available on
Galaxy 19 (with the majority being ethnic or religious in nature). Other FTA satellites include
AMC-4,
AMC-6
AMC-6, formerly GE-6, is a commercial broadcast communications satellite owned by SES (company), SES Launched on 21 October 2000, from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, AMC-6 became the fifth hybrid C band (IEEE), C-band / Ku band, Ku-band sat ...
,
Galaxy 18, and
Satmex 5. A company called
GloryStar promotes FTA religious broadcasters on
Galaxy 19.
Satellite TV has seen a decline in consumers since the 2010s due to the
cord-cutting trend where people are shifting towards internet-based
streaming television and free
over-the-air television.
Television receive-only

The term
television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite television reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink operations (transmit and receive). This was the primary method of satellite television transmissions before the satellite television industry shifted, with the launch of higher powered DBS satellites in the early 1990s which transmitted their signals on the
Ku band frequencies.
[James, Meg]
NBC tacks on Telemundo oversight to Gaspin's tasks
. Los Angeles Times, July 26, 2007. Retrieved on May 14, 2010. Satellite television channels at that time were intended to be used by cable television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with bro ...
networks rather than received by home viewers. Early satellite television receiver systems were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers. These early TVRO systems operated mainly on the C-band frequencies and the dishes required were large; typically over in diameter. Consequently, TVRO is often referred to as "big dish" or "Big Ugly Dish" (BUD) satellite television.
TVRO systems were designed to receive analog and digital satellite
A satellite or an artificial satellite is an object, typically a spacecraft, placed into orbit around a celestial body. They have a variety of uses, including communication relay, weather forecasting, navigation ( GPS), broadcasting, scient ...
feeds of both television or audio from both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher frequency Ku-band systems tend to resemble DBS systems and can use a smaller dish antenna because of the higher power transmissions and greater antenna gain. TVRO systems tend to use larger rather than smaller satellite dish antennas, since it is more likely that the owner of a TVRO system would have a C-band-only setup rather than a Ku band-only setup. Additional receiver boxes allow for different types of digital satellite signal reception, such as DVB/MPEG-2 and 4DTV.
The narrow beam width of a normal parabolic satellite antenna means it can only receive signals from a single satellite at a time. Simulsat or the Vertex-RSI TORUS, is a quasi-parabolic satellite earthstation antenna that is capable of receiving satellite transmissions from 35 or more C- and Ku-band satellites simultaneously.
History
Early history
In 1945 British science fiction
Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or abbreviated SF) is a genre of speculative fiction that deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts. These concepts may include information technology and robotics, biological manipulations, space ...
writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in Earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.
The first satellite relayed communication was achieved early on in the space age, after the first relay test was conducted by Pioneer 1 and the first radio broadcast by SCORE (satellite), SCORE at the end of 1958, after at the beginning of the year Sputnik I became the first satellite in history.
First satellite relayed broadcasts
The first public satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962, although a test broadcast had taken place almost two weeks earlier on 11 July. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the ''Relay program, Relay 1'' satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963. The subsequent first geostationary Syncom 3, orbiting near the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Summer Olympics, 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo to the United States.
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national television network, network of television satellites, called Orbita (TV system), Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya (satellite), Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations.
Development of the direct satellite TV industry
The first domestic satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972.
ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and direct broadcast satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.[Long Distance Television Reception (TV-DX) For the Enthusiast, Roger W. Bunney, ]
The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry direct-to-home television, Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television broadcasting, UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.
The satellite television industry developed in the US from the cable television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with bro ...
industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later Freeform (TV channel), The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California, San Andreas, California, became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.
In the US, PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978.[Public Service Broadcasting in the Age of Globalization, Editors: Indrajit Banerjee, Kalinga Seneviratne. ]
In 1979, Soviet engineers developed the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites. They launched the Gorizont communication satellites later that same year. These satellites used geostationary orbit
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
s. They were equipped with powerful on-board transponders, so the size of receiving parabolic antennas of downlink stations was reduced to 4 and 2.5 metres. On October 18, 1979, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license. The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500. The dishes were nearly in diameter and were remote controlled. The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels. The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation which represented consumers and satellite TV system owners, was established in 1980.
Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size. The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were in diameter, made of fibreglass or solid aluminum or steel,[''Ku-Band Satellite TV: Theory, Installation and Repair''. Frank Baylin et al. .] and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000.[ Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in ]geostationary orbit
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
located above the Earth.
TVRO/C-band satellite era, 1980–1986
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the Satellite television in the United States, US and Europe. On 26 April 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky One), was launched. Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites.[ Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.] Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper. People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.[ The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.] These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal. A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use. The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.
Originally, all channels were broadcast Plaintext, in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to television encryption, scramble their signal and develop subscription systems.
In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984, which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee. Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition. In January 1986, HBO began using the now-obsolete VideoCipher II system to television encryption, encrypt their channels. Other channels used less secure television encryption systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive. Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a descrambler to be purchased for $395. This led to the broadcast signal intrusion, attack on HBO's transponder Galaxy 1 by John R. MacDougall in April 1986. One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels. The Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association (SBCA) was founded on December 2, 1986, as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA).
Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and Data Encryption Standard–based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a black market for descrambler devices which were initially sold as "test" devices.
1987 to present
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air.[ While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year.][ Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result.][ Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events.][ On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its Ku band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising.][ Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band.][ American Broadcasting Company, ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates.] The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison. A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.
Satellite television had also developed in Satellite television by region#Europe, Europe but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over 1.7 metres. On 11 December 1988, however, Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in Ku band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm). The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market.
Commercial satellite broadcasts have existed in Japan since 1992 led by NHK which is influential in the development of regulations and has access to government funding for research. Their entry into the market was protected by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (Japan), Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) resulting in the WOWOW channel that is encrypted and can be accessed from NHK dishes with a decoder.
In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellites. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes Communications, Hughes DirecTV
DirecTV, LLC is an American Multichannel television in the United States, multichannel video programming distributor based in El Segundo, California. Originally launched on June 17, 1994, its primary service is a digital Satellite television, s ...
and Dish Network satellite television systems.
Digital television, Digital satellite broadcasts began in 1994 in the United States through DirecTV
DirecTV, LLC is an American Multichannel television in the United States, multichannel video programming distributor based in El Segundo, California. Originally launched on June 17, 1994, its primary service is a digital Satellite television, s ...
using the Digital Satellite Service, DSS format. They were launched (with the DVB-S standard) in South Africa, Middle East, North Africa and Asia-Pacific in 1994 and 1995, and in 1996 and 1997 in European countries including France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Italy and the Netherlands, as well as Japan, North America and Latin America. Digital DVB-S broadcasts in the United Kingdom and Ireland started in 1998. Japan started broadcasting with the ISDB-S standard in 2000.
On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite. EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170. These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150–200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to digital television transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system.
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent Ku band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy conversion efficiency, energy efficiency of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analog modulation methods.[Mirabito, M., and Morgenstern, B. (2004). ''Satellites: Operations and Applications: The New Communication Technologies'' (fifth edition). Burlington: Focal Press.] Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the Ku band, but only 24 in the C band (IEEE), C band, and several digital subchannels can be Multiplex (TV), multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately (SCPC) on a single transponder. Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials have also had an effect.[ However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.]
In a return to the older (but proven) technologies of satellite communication, the current DBS-based satellite providers in the US (Dish Network and DirecTV) are now utilizing additional capacity on the Ku-band transponders of existing FSS-class satellites, in addition to the capacity on their own existing fleets of DBS satellites in orbit. This was done in order to provide more channel capacity for their systems, as required by the increasing number of High-Definition and simulcast local station channels. The reception of the channels carried on the Ku-band FSS satellite's respective transponders has been achieved by both DirecTV & Dish Network issuing to their subscribers dishes twice as big in diameter (36") than the previous 18" (& 20" for the Dish Network "Dish500") dishes the services used initially, equipped with 2 circular-polarized LNBFs (for reception of 2 native DBS satellites of the provider, 1 per LNBF), and 1 standard linear-polarized LNB for reception of channels from an FSS-type satellite. These newer DBS/FSS-hybrid dishes, marketed by DirecTV and Dish Network as the "SlimLine" and "SuperDish" models respectively, are now the current standard for both providers, with their original 18"/20" single or dual LNBF dishes either now obsolete, or only used for program packages, separate channels, or services only broadcast over the providers' DBS satellites.
On 29 November 1999 US President Bill Clinton signed the Satellite Home Viewer Improvement Act (SHVIA). The act allowed Americans to receive local broadcast signals via direct broadcast satellite systems for the first time.
Legal
The 1963 Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defined a "broadcasting satellite service" as a "space service in which signals transmitted or retransmitted by space stations, or transmitted by reflection from objects in orbit around the Earth, are intended for direct reception by the general public."
In the 1970s some states grew concerned that external broadcasting could alter the cultural or political identity of a state leading to the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) proposal. However, satellite broadcasts can not be restricted on a per-state basis due to the limitations of the technology. Around the time the MacBride report was released, satellite broadcasting was being discussed at the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) where most of the members supported prior consent restrictions for broadcasting in their territories, but some argued this would violate freedom of information. The parties were unable to reach a consensus on this and in 1982 submitted UNGA Res 37/92 ("DBS Principles") to the UN General Assembly which was adopted by a majority vote, however, most States capable of DBS voted against it. The "DBS Principles" resolution is generally regarded as ineffective.
See also
References
External links
*
Digital Satellite Television by Chris Muriel (June 21st, 2000)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Satellite Television
Satellite television,
Television technology
International broadcasting
Television terminology