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Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
(960–1279 AD) was a culturally rich and sophisticated age for
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
. It saw great advancements in the visual arts, music, literature, and philosophy. Officials of the ruling bureaucracy, who underwent a strict and extensive examination process, reached new heights of education in Chinese society, while general Chinese culture was enhanced by widespread printing, growing literacy, and various arts. Appreciation of art among the gentry class flourished during the Song dynasty, especially in regard to paintings, which is an art practiced by many. Trends in painting styles amongst the gentry notably shifted from the Northern (960–1127) to Southern Song (1127–1279) periods, influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the Neo-Confucian political ideology at court. People in urban areas enjoyed theatrical drama on stage, restaurants that catered to a variety of regional cooking, lavish clothing and apparel sold in the markets, while both urban and rural people engaged in seasonal festivities and religious holidays.


Visual arts

Chinese painting Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
during the Song dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of
landscape painting Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent compo ...
. The ''
shan shui ''Shan shui'' (; pronounced ) refers to a style of traditional Chinese painting that involves or depicts scenery or natural landscapes, using a brush and ink rather than more conventional paints. Mountains, rivers and waterfalls are common ...
'' style painting—"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning river—became prominent features in Chinese landscape art. The emphasis laid upon landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in
Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Warring States period (), during a period known as the " Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural develop ...
;
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
stressed that humans were but tiny specks amongst vast and greater cosmos, while Neo-Confucianist writers often pursued the discovery of patterns and principles that they believed caused all social and natural phenomena.Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 162. The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of enamels was also developed further during the Song period.
Longquan celadon Longquan celadon (龍泉青瓷) is a type of green-glazed Chinese ceramic, known in the West as celadon or greenware, produced from about 950 to 1550. The kilns were mostly in Lishui prefecture in southwestern Zhejiang Province in the south ...
wares were particularly popular in the Song period. Black and red
lacquerware Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Befor ...
s of the Song period featured beautifully carved artwork of miniature nature scenes, landscapes, or simple decorative motifs. However, even though intricate bronze-casting, ceramics and lacquerware, jade carving, sculpture, architecture, and the painting of portraits and closely viewed objects like birds on branches were held in high esteem by the Song Chinese, landscape painting was paramount.Morton, 104. By the beginning of the Song dynasty a distinctive landscape style had emerged. Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground, while the background retained qualities of vast and infinite space. Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground.Morton, 105. There was a significant difference in painting trends between the Northern Song period (960–1127) and Southern Song period (1127–1279). The paintings of Northern Song officials were influenced by their political ideals of bringing order to the world and tackling the largest issues affecting the whole of their society, hence their paintings often depicted huge, sweeping landscapes.Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 163. On the other hand, Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale, a method they believed had a better chance for eventual success. Hence, their paintings often focused on smaller, visually closer, and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer. This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the rising influence of Neo-Confucian philosophy. Adherents to Neo-Confucianism focused on reforming society from the bottom up, not the top down, which can be seen in their efforts to promote small private academies during the Southern Song instead of the large state-controlled academies seen in the Northern Song era. Ever since the
Southern and Northern Dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...
(420–589), painting had become an art of high sophistication that was associated with the gentry class as one of their main artistic pastimes, the others being calligraphy and poetry.Ebrey, 81–83. During the Song dynasty there were avid art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings, as well as rate those of their colleagues and friends. The poet and statesman
Su Shi Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
(1037–1101) and his accomplice
Mi Fu Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史) was a ...
(1051–1107) often partook in these affairs, borrowing art pieces to study and copy, or if they really admired a piece then an exchange was often proposed.Ebrey, 163. The small round paintings popular in the Southern Song were often collected into albums as poets would write poems along the side to match the theme and mood of the painting. Although they were avid art collectors, some Song scholars did not readily appreciate artworks commissioned by those painters found at shops or common marketplaces, and some of the scholars even criticized artists from renowned schools and academies. Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, a Professor of Early Chinese History at the
University of California, Santa Barbara The University of California, Santa Barbara (UC Santa Barbara or UCSB) is a public land-grant research university in Santa Barbara, California with 23,196 undergraduates and 2,983 graduate students enrolled in 2021–2022. It is part of the U ...
, points out that Song scholars' appreciation of art created by their peers was not extended to those who made a living simply as professional artists:Barbieri-Low (2007), 39–40.
During the Northern Song (960–1126 CE), a new class of scholar-artists emerged who did not possess the tromp l'oiel skills of the academy painters nor even the proficiency of common marketplace painters. The literati's painting was simpler and at times quite unschooled, yet they would criticize these other two groups as mere professionals, since they relied on paid commissions for their livelihood and did not paint merely for enjoyment or self-expression. The scholar-artists considered that painters who concentrated on realistic depictions, who employed a colorful palette, or, worst of all, who accepted monetary payment for their work were no better than butchers or tinkers in the marketplace. They were not to be considered real artists.
However, during the Song period, there were many acclaimed court painters and they were highly esteemed by emperors and the
royal family A royal family is the immediate family of kings/queens, emirs/emiras, sultans/ sultanas, or raja/ rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term pa ...
. One of the greatest landscape painters given patronage by the Song court was Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145), who painted the original ''
Along the River During Qingming Festival ''Along the River During the Qingming Festival'' (''Qingming Shanghe Tu'') is a handscroll painting by the Song dynasty painter Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145) and copied many times in the following centuries. It captures the daily life of people and ...
'' scroll, one of the most well-known masterpieces of Chinese visual art.
Emperor Gaozong of Song Emperor Gaozong of Song (12 June 1107 – 9 November 1187), personal name Zhao Gou, courtesy name Deji, was the tenth emperor of the Song dynasty and the first of the Southern Song period, ruling between 1127 and 1162 and retaining power as re ...
(1127–1162) once commissioned an art project of numerous paintings for the '' Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute'', based on the woman poet Cai Wenji (177–250 AD) of the earlier
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
. The Southern Song dynasty court painters included Zhao Mengjian (趙孟堅, c. 1199–1264), a member of the Imperial family, known for popularising the Three Friends of Winter. During the Song period Buddhism saw a small revival since its persecution during the Tang dynasty. This could be seen in the continued construction of sculpture artwork at the Dazu Rock Carvings in
Sichuan Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
province. Similar in design to the sculptures at Dazu, the Song temple at Mingshan in Anyue, Sichuan province features a wealth of Song era Buddhist sculptures, including the Buddha and deities clad in lavish imperial and monastic robes.Sorensen, 282–283.


Paintings

File:Cui Bai - Magpies and Hare.jpg, alt=A long, portrait-oriented painting. To the right is a small hill with a tree protruding from it. Two birds are swooping in from the upper right corner, one passing in front of the tree. In the bottom left corner is a hare with its head tilted upwards, facing the birds. The scroll uses dark inks, and has darkened and become orange with age., ''Magpies and Hare'', signed and dated by Cui Bai, latter 11th century. File:Su Han Ch'en 001.jpg, alt=A portrait-oriented painting depicting two young children, a boy and a slightly older girl, playing with figurines on a table in a garden. Behind them is a tall rock flanked by branches of a flowering tree., ''Playing Children'', by Su Han Chen, 1150. File:Mao I 001.jpg, alt=A square painting depicting four cats, two in the bottom left tussling and two on the bottom right not doing anything in particular, in a garden with small flowering bushes., ''Cats in the Garden'', by Mao Yi, 12th century. File:Fan Kuan - Travelers Among Mountains and Streams - Google Art Project.jpg, alt=A long, portrait-oriented scroll depicting a very tall mountain in the background and a stream with trees in the foreground, near the bottom of the painting. Contrary to the name of the painting, there are no travelers shown., ''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'', by
Fan Kuan Fan Zhongzheng (c. 960 – c. 1030), courtesy name Zhongli, better known by his pseudonym Fan Kuan (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. ''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'', a large hanging scroll, is Fan Kuan's best kno ...
, 11th century File:Loquats and Mountain Bird.jpg, alt=A square painting depicting a small bird, with a grey top and white underbelly, perched on a branch that ends with a large cluster of orange tinted fruits, each about half the size of the bird., ''
Loquats The loquat (''Eriobotrya japonica'') is a large evergreen shrub or tree, grown commercially for its orange fruit and for its leaves, which are used to make herbal tea. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant. The loquat is in the family R ...
and Mountain Bird'', anonymous painter of the Southern Song File:Li Anzhong's Bird on a Branch.gif, alt=A square painting with irregularly sloped curved corners depicting a puffy bird with a blue-grey back and white underbelly perching on top of a bamboo branch., ''Bird on a Branch'', Li Anzhong, early-mid 12th century File:Song Duckling.jpg, alt=A square painting of a duckling with a grey back, white underbelly, and yellow-tinted face. The duckling is looking down towards the lower, right hand corner., A duckling, anonymous painter of the Southern Song File:Song Palace Children Playing.jpg, alt=A square painting of four well dressed small boys playing in a circle. Unused toys sit in a corner. The background uses darker colors while the children are wearing mostly white and bright colors., Palace children playing, Northern or Southern Song File:Guo Xi - Early Spring (large).jpg, alt=A landscape-oriented painting of gnarled looking trees on top of wavy mountaintops. A large collection or square, red seal stamps are arranged at the corners and edges of the work., '' Early Spring'', by Guo Xi (c. 1020–1090), 1072. File:Zhang Shengwen. L'enseignement de Bouddha Sakyamuni .jpg, alt=A landscape-oriented painting showing a Buddha in red robes, seated in a throne, surrounded by sixteen adult figures and one baby. With the exception of the baby, all of the figures, including the Buddha, have blue halos., ''The
Sakyamuni Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
'', by Zhang Shengwen, c. 1173–1176 File:Songhuizong5.jpg, alt=A long, landscape-oriented painting. On the right half are several white birds flocking around the roof of a building. On the left half is a block of vertically oriented text., Painting by
Emperor Huizong of Song Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Northern Song dynasty of China. He was also a very well-known calligrapher. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the ...
, a renowned scholar and painter, 1112 File:Chinesischer Maler des 11. Jahrhunderts (III) 001.jpg, alt=A long, portrait-oriented painting of a bare-chested, bearded man sitting on a mat under a tree, reading., ''A Scholar in a Meadow'', 11th century. File:Chinesischer Maler des 11. Jahrhunderts (II) 001.jpg, alt=A portrait-oriented painting depicting a six-armed figure with a red halo sitting inside of a white lotus flower. The flower is resting on the back of a peacock, whose tail feathers are fully extended., ''The Peacock King, Gunsho Mingwang'', 11th century. File:Chinesischer Maler des 12. Jahrhunderts (III) 001.jpg, alt=A portrait-oriented painting of four birds perched on a set of vertical branches originating from the same short tree. A fifth bird is hiding behind the base of the tree., ''Birds in a Bamboo and Plum Tree Thicket'', 12th century. File:Chinesischer Maler des 12. Jahrhunderts (I) 001.jpg, alt=A square painting of a branch with a cluster of white flowers at the end. The branch is superimposed over a red square with rounded edges., ''The White Jasmine Branch'', 12th century. File:Likan Bamboo and Rocks.jpg, alt=A painting of a cluster of bamboo sprouting up among rounded rocks. The background of the painting is bright yellow., ''Bamboos and Rock'', by Li Kan (1244–1320) File:Cloudy Mountains1.jpg, alt=A long, landscape-oriented scroll depicting a mountain range wrapped in clouds. The painting uses only dull colors., ''Cloudy Mountains'', by Mi Youren (son of
Mi Fu Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史) was a ...
), 1130. File:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg, alt=A landscape-oriented painting showing three men dressed in thick robes standing on a patch of land at the edge of a large stream, laughing with one another. Their attendants are on either side., ''Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one'', a painting in the Litang style, 12th century. File:Huang Zhucai, Mountain Magpie, Sparrows and Bramble.jpg, alt=a portrait-oriented painting with a large white bird with a black head in the foreground, and several smaller birds perched on a cluster of small branches and fern in the background., ''Mountain Magpie, Sparrows and Bramble'', by Huang Zhucai (933–after 993). File:B Song Dynasty Cao Empress Sitting with Maids.JPG, alt=A square painting of a woman in an intricately decorated blue dress and a large blue hat, sitting in a throne. She is flanked by two female attendants in black dresses with flower covered black hats., Official Song era portrait painting of Empress Cao, wife of
Emperor Renzong of Song Emperor Renzong of Song (30 May 1010 – 30 April 1063), personal name Zhao Zhen, was the fourth emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned for about 41 years from 1022 to his death in 1063, and was the longest reigning Song dynasty empe ...
File:Nine-Dragons1.jpg, alt=A landscape-oriented painting of a dragon drifting though clouds. The painting is done entirely in black, white, and grey., One of the ''Nine Dragons'' by Chen Rong, 1244. File:Ma Lin 010.jpg, alt=A portrait-oriented painting of a man in white robes sitting under a tree with crooked bends. The painting, with the exception of the man in white, is in brown tones., ''Listening to the Wind'', by Ma Lin, 1246. File:猴貓圖.jpg, alt=A faded, landscape-oriented fragment of a painting depicting a black and white cat and a monkey staring at each other and clinging to one another., ''Monkey and cats'', by
Yi Yuanji Yi Yuanji (; Wade-Giles: I Yüan-chi) (c. 1000, Changsha, Hunan – c. 1064) was a Northern Song Dynasty painter, famous for his realistic paintings of animals. According to Robert van Gulik, Yi Yuanji's paintings of gibbons were particularly ...
, 11th century. File:Holding a Wand under the Pine Tree by Xu Daoning.jpg, alt=An oval painting mounted on a square background depicting a man in a white robe, holding a small stick, next to a tree. Strong wind blows everything in the painting leftward. The painting is done mainly in green tones., ''Holding a Wand Under the Pine Tree'', by
Xu Daoning Xu Daoning () (c. 970–1051/53) was a Chinese painter of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279) from Chang'an (now Xi'an) or Hejian (河间 now Hebei).Cihai: Page 382. He started out life by selling medicine prescriptions in Kaifeng. While selli ...
, 11th century File:Liu Songnian-Luohan.jpg, alt=A long portrait-oriented painting depicting two figures, the man to the right is a man in blue robes, facing right. The figure to the left is a much larger, bare-chested, outwardly male figure with an oversized head, also facing right., '' A Luohan'', painted in 1207 by Liu Songnian, Southern Song period File:Mother Hen and Chicks, Song Dynasty.jpg, alt=A long, portrait-oriented scroll. The top quarter is a block of vertically oriented text, the bottom three fourths depicts a large yellow hen bending down near four yellow chicks, each about the size of the hen's head, all on a black background., ''Mother Hen and Chicks'', anonymous Song artist File:Three Friends of Winter by Zhao Mengjian.jpg, '' The Three Friends of Winter'' by Zhao Mengjian, c. 1199–1264


Ceramics

Image:B-Qingbai-Kanne.JPG, alt=A white teapot with an almost perfectly spherical body and a large, cylindrical cap in the center which is topped with a small crown shaped embellishment. Several vertical lines are glazed into the body of the pot., A Song teapot in the Qingbai style, from Jingdezhen. File:Grön vas från Kina gjord 1127-1279 - Hallwylska museet - 95508.tif, Longquan ware black stoneware vase with celadon glaze, Song dynasty. Image:Petite jarre Musée Guimet 2418.jpg, alt=A green-grey bowl with a small bottom, a very wide center, and a top opening wider than the base but not as wide as the center. A pattern of out-dented large leaves covers the body of the bowl., A cut and engraved sandstone and celadon jar from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 10th–11th century. Image:Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 046.jpg, alt=A green-tinted grey teapot with a small base and a tall body in the shape of a cone with the smallest point facing downwards. The cap covering the point that the water is poured into is a tall cylinder, and fits into a thick, wide cylindrical rim in the pot., Stoneware with greenish glaze, Northern Song, 10th to 11th century. Image:Pot tripode Musée Guimet 2418.jpg, alt=A blue-green tinted grey pot with a wide bottom supported by three stubby legs, a wide body, and a smaller opening at the top. A large five petal flower pattern is out-dented on the body of the jar., A small celadon tripod from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, dated to the late 10th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231107.jpg, alt=A blue-grey bowl with a nearly perfect half sphere body, and a rim that narrows from the edge of the half sphere, then goes up slightly., A small "qinbai" porcelain jar from Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, 11th–12th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231105.jpg, alt=A grey-green shallow bowl with a painted decoration on the inside consisting of dozens of small petals moving outward from the center of the dish in a spiral pattern., Gray sandstone dish with a celadon coating, decorated with a
peony The peony or paeony is a flowering plant in the genus ''Paeonia'' , the only genus in the family Paeoniaceae . Peonies are native to Asia, Europe and Western North America. Scientists differ on the number of species that can be distinguished, ...
motif, from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 11th–12th century. Image:Figurine Zodiaque Musée Guimet 2418.jpg, alt=A grey statue of a thin figure in a flat topped hat and loose robes holding a piglet. The robes and hat are painted brown., A funerary porcelain figurine in the personification of the Chinese zodiac, from Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, 12th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231101.jpg, alt=A grey-green shallow bowl or curved plate with a large orchid design painted into the inside of the bowl., Celadon plate from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 10th–11th century. Image:Box with floral medallions Asian Art Museum SF B60P190.JPG, alt=A blue-grey, cylindrical case with three white bowls inside of it., A Song ceramic box with floral medallions Image:Vase with applied dragons Asian Art Museum SF B60P7.JPG, alt=A tall, thin, off white vase with an eastern dragon wrapped around the portion where the main body of the vase and the beginning of the rim area meet., A Southern Song (1127–1279) vase with applied dragons and painted floral sprays Image:Song celadon 5-tube jar and cover.JPG, alt=A tan jar with several rounded bands carved into the body and five upward-facing tubes equidistantly spaced along the top area of the jar. The lid is crowned with a lotus flower carving., A Song five-tubed jar with lotus petal design, made of
Longquan celadon Longquan celadon (龍泉青瓷) is a type of green-glazed Chinese ceramic, known in the West as celadon or greenware, produced from about 950 to 1550. The kilns were mostly in Lishui prefecture in southwestern Zhejiang Province in the south ...
Image:Stoneware tea bowls, Song Dynasty.jpg, alt=Two small polished black bowls. One has a large blue streak in it, the other has a polka-dot pattern on the inside consisting of black spots on a dark grey background. All of the coloring is created by features of the stone, rather than paint., A pair of stoneware tea bowls from the Song File:Bluish-white glazed figurine, Northern Song dynasty, from Bijia Shan, Chaozhou - Hong Kong Museum of History - DSC00878.JPG, Bluish white glazed figurine, Northern Song period


Sculpture

File:Guanyin 00.jpg, Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (
Guanyin Guanyin () is a Bodhisattva associated with compassion. She is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara ( sa, अवलोकितेश्वर) and has been adopted by other Eastern religions, including Chinese folk religion. She ...
), wood and pigment, 11th century File:Kuan-yan bodhisattva, Northern Sung dynasty, China, c. 1025, wood, Honolulu Academy of Arts.jpg, The bodhisattva Kuan-yan (Guanyin), Northern Song dynasty, China, c. 1025, wood File:Köln Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst 03012015 Bodhisattva Dynastie Song.jpg, Bodhisattva, Song Dynasty, 11th–12th century File:Baby pillow.JPG, White-glazed pillow in the shape of an infant boy; ding ware, Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) File:Avalokitesvara (musée Guimet) (5422671631).jpg, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin),
limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms w ...
, Song dynasty File:Standing Bodhisattva, China, Song dynasty, 12th century, painted wood - Worcester Art Museum - IMG 7553.JPG, Standing Bodhisattva, China, Song dynasty, 12th century, painted wood


Poetry and literature

Chinese literature during the Song period contained a range of many different genres and was enriched by the social complexity of the period. Although the earlier
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
is viewed as the zenith era for Chinese poetry (particularly the '' shi'' style poetry of
Du Fu Du Fu (; 712–770) was a Tang dynasty poet and politician. Along with his elder contemporary and friend Li Bai (Li Po), he is frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets.Ebrey, 103. His greatest ambition was to serve his country ...
, Li Bai,
Bai Juyi Bai Juyi (also Bo Juyi or Po Chü-i; ; 772–846), courtesy name Letian (樂天), was a renowned Chinese poet and Tang dynasty government official. Many of his poems concern his career or observations made about everyday life, including as g ...
), there were important poetic developments by famous poets of the Song era, with the flourishing of the '' ci'' form being especially being associated with Song poetry. Song developments in poetry included the works of the social critic and pioneer of the "new subjective style" Mei Yaochen (1002–1060), the politically controversial yet renowned master
Su Shi Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
(1037–1101), the eccentric yet brilliant
Mi Fu Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史) was a ...
(1051–1107), the premier Chinese female poet Li Qingzhao (1084–1151), and many others. Although having roots in the
Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...
(502–557 AD), and further development during the brief existence of the Southern Tang immediate preceding the Song, the ''ci'' form of Chinese poetry found its greatest acceptance and popularity during the Song dynasty, and was used by most Song poets. The high court Chancellor
Fan Zhongyan Fan Zhongyan (5 September 989 – 19 June 1052) from Wu County of Suzhou ( Jiangsu Province, China), courtesy name Xiwen (), ratified as the Duke of Wenzheng () posthumously, and conferred as Duke of Chu () posthumously, was a Chinese poet, p ...
(989–1052), ardent Neo-Confucian
Ouyang Xiu Ouyang Xiu (; 1007 – 1072 CE), courtesy name Yongshu, also known by his art names Zuiweng () and Liu Yi Jushi (), was a Chinese historian, calligrapher, epigrapher, essayist, poet, and politician of the Song dynasty. He was a renowned writ ...
(1007–1072), the great calligrapher Huang Tingjian (1045–1105), and the military general Xin Qiji (1140–1207) were especially known for their ci poetry, amongst many others. The great ''ci'' poet Li Yu (who ruled the Southern Tang under the name Li Houzhu) wrote some of his most famous works during his time as a prisoner at the first Song court, following the demise of his former kingdom: Li Yu is an important transitional figure, sometimes considered to be the first major Song poet, and sometimes acclaimed as the last major Tang poet. Historiography in literature remained prominent during the Song, as it had in previous ages and would in successive ages of China. Along with Song Qi, the essayist and historian Ouyang Xiu were responsible for compiling the ''
New Book of Tang The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
'' by 1060, covering the history of the Tang dynasty. Chancellor
Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the monumental history book ''Zizhi Tongjian''. Sima was ...
(1019–1086), the political nemesis of
Wang Anshi Wang Anshi ; ; December 8, 1021 – May 21, 1086), courtesy name Jiefu (), was a Chinese economist, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. He served as chancellor and attempted major and controversial socioeconomic reforms ...
(1021–1086), was responsible for heading a team of scholars that compiled the enormous historical work of the ''
Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...
'', a universal history completed in 1084 AD with a total of over 3 million written
Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
s in 294 volumes.Pratt & Rutt, 478. It covered the major themes and intricate nuances of Chinese history from 425 BC during the
Warring States The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
all the way up to the 10th century and the fall of the Tang.Brownlee, 19. In 1189 it was compiled and condensed into fifty-nine books by
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...
(1130–1200), while this project was totally complete with the efforts of his disciples around the time of his death in 1200.Partington, 238. There were also very large encyclopedic works written in the Song period, such as the '' Four Great Books of Song'' compiled first by Li Fang in the 10th century and fully edited by the time of Cefu Yuangui in the 11th century. The largest of these was the 1013 publication of the '' Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau'', a massive encyclopedia consisting of 9.4 million written Chinese characters divided into 1000 volumes. There were also
rhyme dictionaries A rime dictionary, rhyme dictionary, or rime book () is an ancient type of Chinese dictionary that collates characters by tone and rhyme, instead of by radical. The most important rime dictionary tradition began with the ''Qieyun'' (601), whi ...
written during the Song dynasty, such as the ''
Jiyun The ''Jiyun'' (''Chi-yun''; ) is a Chinese rime dictionary published in 1037 during the Song Dynasty. The chief editor Ding Du (丁度) and others expanded and revised the '' Guangyun''. It is possible, according to Teng and Biggerstaff (1971:14 ...
'' of 1037. Although Neo-Confucianism became dominant over Buddhism in China during this period, there was still a significant amount of Buddhist literature. For example, there was the collection of Zen Buddhist kōans in the '' Blue Cliff Record'' of 1125, which was expanded by Yuanwu Keqin (1063–1135). 'Travel record literature' ('youji wenxue') was also a popular category of literature during the Song period, which was accounts of one's own travel experiences typically written in narrative or prose styles, and included authors such as Fan Chengda (1126–1193).Hargett, 67–68. A great example of Chinese travel literature in the Song period would be
Su Shi Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
's (1037–1101) '' Record of Stone Bell Mountain''. There were many technical and scientific writings during the Song period. The two most eminent authors of the scientific and technical fields were
Shen Kuo Shen Kuo (; 1031–1095) or Shen Gua, courtesy name Cunzhong (存中) and pseudonym Mengqi (now usually given as Mengxi) Weng (夢溪翁),Yao (2003), 544. was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Shen wa ...
(1031–1095) and his contemporary Su Song (1020–1101). Shen Kuo published his ''
Dream Pool Essays ''The Dream Pool Essays'' (or ''Dream Torrent Essays'') was an extensive book written by the Chinese polymath and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095), published in 1088 during the Song dynasty (960–1279) of China. Shen compiled this encycloped ...
'' in 1088 AD, an enormous encyclopedic book that covered a wide range of subjects, including literature, art, military strategy, mathematics, astronomy, meteorology, geology, geography, metallurgy, engineering, hydraulics, architecture, zoology, botany, agronomy, medicine, anthropology, archeology, and more.Needham, Volume 1, 136. As for Shen Kuo's equally brilliant peer, Su Song created a celestial atlas of five different
star map A star chart is a celestial map of the night sky with astronomical objects laid out on a grid system. They are used to identify and locate constellations, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and planets. They have been used for human navigation since ti ...
s, wrote the 1070 AD pharmaceutical treatise of the ''Ben Cao Tu Jing'' (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia), which had the related subjects of botany, zoology, metallurgy, and mineralogy, and wrote his famous horological treatise of the ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'' in 1092 AD, which described in full detail his ingenious
astronomical Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxi ...
clock tower constructed in the capital city of
Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
.Needham, Volume 3, 208 & 278.Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 445–448.Bodde, 140. Although these two figures were perhaps the greatest technical authors in their field during the time, there were many others. For producing textiles, Qin Guan's book of 1090 AD, the ''Can Shu'' (Book of
Sericulture Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, '' Bombyx mori'' (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively stud ...
), included description of a silk-reeling machine that incorporated the earliest known use of the mechanical belt drive in order to function.Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 107–108. In the literary field of
agronomy Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and ...
, there was the ''Jiu Huang Huo Min Shu'' (The Rescue of the People; a Treatise on
Famine A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, natural disasters, crop failure, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompan ...
Prevention and Relief) edited by Dong Wei in the 12th century, the ''Cha Lu'' (Record of Tea) written by Cai Xiang in 1060 AD, the ''Zhu Zi Cang Fa'' (Master Zhu on Managing Communal
Granaries A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed. Ancient or primitive granaries are most often made of pottery. Granaries are often built above the ground to keep the stored food away from mice and other animals ...
) written by
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...
in 1182 AD, and many others.Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 621.Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 623. There were also great authors of written works pertaining to geography and cartography during the Song, such as Yue Shi (his book in 983), Wang Zhu (in 1051), Li Dechu (in 1080), Chen Kunchen (in 1111), Ouyang Wen (in 1117), and Zhu Mu (in 1240).Needham, Volume 3, 521. Although an early form of the local geographic
gazetteer A gazetteer is a geographical index or directory used in conjunction with a map or atlas.Aurousseau, 61. It typically contains information concerning the geographical makeup, social statistics and physical features of a country, region, or con ...
existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form known as "treatise on a place", or ''fangzhi'', replaced the old "map guide", or ''tujing'', under the Song.Bol, 44. The major differences between the two were that ''fangzhi'' were products of local initiative and decision-making, were typically ten to fifty chapters in length, and were almost always printed for a large audience, whereas ''tujing'' were products of infrequent demands from the central government and were typically only four chapters long.Bol, 46. The widespread availability of printing in the Song allowed many ordinary people to access materials that were once read almost exclusively by experts, such as printed texts and handbooks on agriculture, childbirth, pharmacy and medicine, domestic economics,
geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...
, divination, and Taoist rituals.Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 158.Hymes, 3.


Performing arts

Theatre and drama in China trace their roots back to the academy of music known as the Pear Garden, founded in the early 8th century during the Tang dynasty. However, historian Stephen H. West asserts that the Northern Song era capital
Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
was the first real center where the performing arts became "an industry, a conglomerate involving theatre, gambling, prostitution, and food."West, 69. The rise in consumption by merchants and scholar-officials, he states, "accelerated the growth of both the performance and the food industries," asserting a direct link between the two due to their close proximity within the cities.West, 69 & 74. Of the fifty-some theatres located in the 'pleasure districts' of Kaifeng, four of these theatres were large enough to entertain audiences of several thousand each, drawing huge crowds which nearby businesses thrived upon.West, 76. The chief crowd that gathered was composed of those from the merchant class, while government officials only went to restaurants and attended theatre performances during holidays.West, 98. From Kaifeng, the '' zaju'' dramatic style employed the ''beiqu'' style of poetic lyrics. After the capital had shifted to
Hangzhou Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
, the dramatic style of ''xiwen'' (also '' nanxi'' or ''nanqu'') developed separately. These two different regional genres of musical drama used different regional dialects of speech, recitation, and dialogue, entailed their own unique sets of role types (''juese''), and employed different types of musical instruments playing different tunes.West, 70. In Kaifeng drama, one singer was preferred for each play, accompanied by string and percussion instruments. In Hangzhou drama, there was a multitude of singers on stage for each set, while string and wind instruments were preferred. Color and clothing distinguished the rank of theatre actors in the Song.Gernet, 223. Similar to vendors who wore specific outfits to identify which guild they belonged to, actors' generic costumes reflected the role type they played on stage, whether it be student, young man, young woman, official, soldier, etc. Actors honed their theatrical skills at drama schools. Musicians also found work in the theatre industry, since plays performed in the markets were often accompanied by music. Actors on stage always spoke their lines in
Classical Chinese Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning "literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning "literar ...
;
vernacular Chinese Written vernacular Chinese, also known as Baihua () or Huawen (), is the forms of written Chinese based on the varieties of Chinese spoken throughout China, in contrast to Classical Chinese, the written standard used during imperial China up ...
that imitated the common spoken language was not introduced into theatrical performances until the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
. Although trained to speak in the erudite Classical language, acting troupes commonly drew their membership from one of the lowest classes in society: prostitutes.West, 72. Themes enjoyed in stage skits varied from satires about corrupt officials to comedy acts with titles like "Setting fire when delivering the soup," "Raising a ruckus in the winehouse," "The peony smells best when the wine is stolen," and "Catching a monkey in a restaurant."West, 78–79.Gernet, 224. The only ''xiwen'' play to have survived from the Southern Song era is the ''Zhang Xie zhuang yuan'' (张協狀元), featuring interludes such as a clown stealing food and wine at a wedding banquet in act 16 and a quick comedy sketch about renting a room in act 24.West, 79. Surprisingly, actors on stage did not have a wholesale monopoly on theatrical entertainment, as even vendors and peddlers in the street, singing lewd songs and beating on whatever they could find to compensate for percussion instruments, could draw crowds.West, 83–85 This practice was so widespread that West claims "the city itself was turned into a stage and the citizens into the essential audience."West, 85. Many of the songs played for stage performances were tunes that originated from vendors' and peddlers' songs.West, 91. Contests were held on New Year's Day to determine which vendor or peddler had the best chants and songs while selling wares; the winners were brought before the imperial court to perform. The ''Wulin jiushi'' of the Southern Song states that these vendors, when presented to the consorts and concubines of the palace, were lavished with heaps of gold and pearls for their wares; some vendors would "become rich in a single evening." Theatrical stunts were also performed to gain attention, such as fried-glutinous-rice-ball vendors hanging small red lamps on portable bamboo racks who would twirl them around to the beat of a drum to dazzle crowds.West, 86. Puppet shows in the streets and wards were also popular.West, 87.


Festivities

In ancient China, there were many domestic and public pleasures in the rich urban environment unique to the Song dynasty. For the austere and hardworking peasantry, annual festivals and holidays provided a time of joy and relaxation, and for the poorest it meant a chance to borrow food and alcoholic drink so that everyone could join in the celebration. People would gather around their local sanctuary to observe the festival's games, theatrical entertainments, juggling, clowning, and other performances.Gernet, 106. The festivities on New Years were considered the most important of the year by the Chinese, its momentous occasion correlating with the beginning of February on the Western calendar. Preparations for the New Years festival took place over a month's time, as people busied themselves painting
door god Menshen or door gods are divine guardians of doors and gates in Chinese folk religions, used to protect against evil influences or to encourage the entrance of positive ones. They began as the divine pair Shenshu ( ) and Yulü () under the ...
s, crafting paper streamers with lucky characters for "welcoming the spring," making printed images of Zhong Kui, and cooking special kinds of foods such as porridge of red haricot beans.Gernet, 186. The widely popular
Lantern Festival The Lantern Festival ( zh, t=元宵節, s=元宵节, first=t, hp=Yuánxiāo jié), also called Shangyuan Festival ( zh, t=上元節, s=上元节, first=t, hp=Shàngyuán jié), is a Chinese traditional festival celebrated on the fifteenth d ...
was held every 15th day of 1st lunar month. According to the literatus and official Zhou Mi (1232–1298 AD), during the Xiao-Zong period (1163–1189 AD) the best lantern festivals were held at
Suzhou Suzhou (; ; Suzhounese: ''sou¹ tseu¹'' , Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Soochow, is a major city in southern Jiangsu province, East China. Suzhou is the largest city in Jiangsu, and a major economic center and focal point of trad ...
and
Fuzhou Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute ...
, while
Hangzhou Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
was also known for its great variety of colorful paper lanterns, in all shapes and sizes.Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 128. Meng Yuanlao (active 1126–1147) recalled in
Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital) ''Dongjing Meng Hua Lu'' () or ''The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor'', is a memoir written by Meng Yuanlao () (). In 1126, Meng was made a refugee from Kaifeng (Dongjing; "Eastern Capital"), the thriving capital of the Northern Song dynasty af ...
how the earlier Northern Song capital at
Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
would host festivals with tens of thousands of colorful and brightly lit paper lanterns hoisted on long poles up and down the main street, the poles also wrapped in colorful silk with numerous dramatic paper figures flying in the wind like fairies. There were also other venerated holidays, such as the
Qingming Festival The Qingming festival or Ching Ming Festival, also known as Tomb-Sweeping Day in English (sometimes also called Chinese Memorial Day or Ancestors' Day), is a traditional Chinese festival observed by the Han Chinese of mainland China, Hong Ko ...
, as it was supposedly this period of the year that was depicted in the artwork (mentioned above) by the artist Zhang Zeduan (although some would argue the painting actually represented the time of autumn in the year). With the advent of the discovery of
gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). T ...
in China, lavish
fireworks Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. They are most commonly used in fireworks displays (also called a fireworks show or pyrotechnics), combining a large number of devices ...
displays could also be held during festivities. For example, the martial demonstration in 1110 AD to entertain the court of Emperor Huizong, when it was recorded that a large fireworks display was held alongside Chinese dancers in strange costumes moving through clouds of colored smoke in their performance.Kelly, 2. The common people also purchased firecrackers from city shopkeepers and vendors, made of simple sticks of bamboo filled with a small amount of gunpowder. Although they were discontinued after the devastation of the Anshi Rebellion (755–763) during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, lavish Chinese carnivals were revived and once again celebrated during the Song dynasty.Benn, 157. Chinese carnival celebrations were held nationwide when the emperor felt a great occasion warranted a grand display of his benevolence and generosity, such as renowned military victories, abundant harvests after long droughts or famines, the granting of grand amnesties by the throne, sacrifices to deities, the installation of a crown prince, marriages within the imperial family, etc.Benn, 154–155. It was during the Song dynasty that the custom of sitting on chairs instead of floormats became commonplace. However, the older practice continued to be customary for some time, with a Imperial birthday banquet in the Southern Song reportedly involving "officials sitting on sheets with purple edges on the ground". Southern Song scholar
Lu You Lu You (; 1125–1210) was a Chinese historian and poet of the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋). Career Early life and marriage Lu You was born on a boat floating in the Wei River early on a rainy morning, November 13, 1125. At the time of his ...
testified that the custom of low-level furniture was preserved in the palace but became phased out among the commoners, and the etiquette rules against the use of chairs was increasingly outdated.


Clothing and apparel

There were many types of clothing and different clothing trends in the Song period, yet clothes in China were always modeled after the seasons and as outward symbols of one's social class.
Coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when ...
used for heating one's home was scarce and often expensive, so people often wore clothing with extra silk-floss and fur-lined coats in the winter.Gernet, 127. The clothing material preferred by the rich was
silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from th ...
, and for special occasions they had silk robes with gold
brocade Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and sometimes with gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word " broccoli", comes from Italian ''broccato'' meaning "emb ...
. The clothing material used by the poor was often
hemp Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a botanical class of '' Cannabis sativa'' cultivars grown specifically for industrial or medicinal use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with bamboo, hemp is among the fastest growing plants ...
en cloth, but cotton clothes were also used, the latter being most widely available in the south. The types of clothes worn by peasants and commoners were largely uniform in appearance (with color standard of black and white),Gernet, 128. and so was the case for the upper class and elite. In fact, wealthy and leading members of society followed accepted guidelines and ritual requirements for clothing. In the upper class, each stratified grade in the social hierarchy was distinguished by the color and specific ornamentation of robes, the shape and type of headgear, and even the style of girdle worn.Gernet, 127–128. This rigid order was especially so during the beginning of the dynasty. However, the lines of hierarchy slowly began to blur as the color purple, once reserved solely for the attire of third rank officials or higher, began to diffuse amongst all ranks of officials who bore the color indiscriminately. Along with lower grade civil officials in the government protesting the rigid regulations for attire, the wealthy members of the merchant class also contributed to the disintegration of rules for ceremonial attire worn only by certain members of society.Gernet, 129. Yet there were still visible distinctions between civil officials and the class of rich merchants and business owners; the officials were distinguished by their long robes reaching to the ground, while merchants often wore a blouse that came down below the waist with trousers. Pants and trousers were introduced to China during the
Warring States The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
in the 4th century BC, and were not exclusive to merchants;Gernet, 130. every soldier wore trousers as part of his uniform, while trousers were also worn by the common people. Although most men were cleanshaven, soldiers, military officers, and
professional boxing Professional boxing, or prizefighting, is regulated, sanctioned boxing. Professional boxing bouts are fought for a purse that is divided between the boxers as determined by contract. Most professional bouts are supervised by a regulatory autho ...
champions preferred side-whiskers and goatee beards, as they were a sign of virility.Gernet, 131. The attire of Song women was distinguished from men's clothing by being fastened on the left, not on the right. Women wore long dresses or blouses that came down almost to the knee. They also wore skirts and jackets with short or long sleeves. When strolling about outside and along the road, women of wealthy means chose to wear square purple scarves around their shoulders. Ladies also wore hairpins and combs in their hair, while princesses, imperial concubines, and the wives of officials and wealthy merchants wore head ornaments of gold and silver that were shaped in the form of phoenixes and flowers. People in the Song dynasty never left their homes barefoot, and always had some sort of headgear on. Shops in the city specialized in certain types of hats and headgear, including caps with pointed tails, as well as belts and waistwraps.West, 71. Only Buddhist monks shaved their heads and strolled about with no headgear or hat of any sort to cover their heads. For footwear, people could purchase leather shoes called 'oiled footwear', wooden sandals, hempen sandals, and the more expensive satin slippers.


Food and cuisine

From the Song period, works such as
Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital) ''Dongjing Meng Hua Lu'' () or ''The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor'', is a memoir written by Meng Yuanlao () (). In 1126, Meng was made a refugee from Kaifeng (Dongjing; "Eastern Capital"), the thriving capital of the Northern Song dynasty af ...
preserve lists of names for entrées and food dishes in customer
menu In a restaurant, the menu is a list of food and beverages offered to customers and the prices. A menu may be à la carte – which presents a list of options from which customers choose – or table d'hôte, in which case a pre-established seque ...
s for restaurants and taverns, as well as for feasts at banquets, festivals and carnivals, and modest dining. Many of the peculiar names for these dishes do not provide clues as to what types of food ingredients were used. However, judging from the listed seasonings they used for these dishes, such as pepper, ginger, soya sauce, oil, salt, and vinegar, Song era cuisine is perhaps not too different from the Chinese cuisine of today.Gernet, 133. Other additional seasonings and ingredients included walnuts, turnips, crushed Chinese cardamon kernels,
fagara ''Zanthoxylum'' is a genus of about 250 species of deciduous and evergreen trees, shrubs and climbers in the family Rutaceae that are native to warm temperate and subtropical areas worldwide. It is the type genus of the tribe Zanthoxyleae in ...
, olives, ginkgo nuts, citrus zest, and sesame oil. Regional differences in culture brought about different types of foods, while in certain areas the cooking traditions of regional cultures blended together; such was the case of the Southern Song capital at
Hangzhou Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
. After the mass exodus from the north, people brought
Henan Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
-style cooking and foods (popular in the previous Northern Song capital at
Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
) to Hangzhou, which was blended with the cooking traditions of
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Ji ...
. However, records indicate that already in the Northern Song period, the first capital at Kaifeng sported restaurants that served southern Chinese cuisine. This catered to capital officials whose native provinces were in the southeast, and would have found northern cuisine lacking in sufficient seasoning for their tastes. In fact, texts from the Song era provide the first use of the phrases ''nanshi'', ''beishi'', and ''chuanfan'' to refer specifically to northern, southern, and Sichuan cooking, respectively. Many restaurants were known for their specialties; for example, there was one restaurant in Hangzhou that served only iced foods, while some restaurants catered to those who wanted either hot, warm, room temperature, or cold foods.West, 93. Descendants of those from Kaifeng owned most of the restaurants found in Hangzhou,Gernet, 133–134 but many other regional varieties in foodstuffs and cooking were sponsored by restaurants. This included restaurants catering
Sichuan cuisine Sichuan cuisine, alternatively romanized as Szechwan cuisine or Szechuan cuisine (, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), is a style of Chinese cuisine originating from Sichuan Province. It has bold flavours, particularly the pungency and spici ...
that emphasized use of pepper, dishes and beverages from
Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and ...
and
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in His ...
, and coastal foods of
shrimp Shrimp are crustaceans (a form of shellfish) with elongated bodies and a primarily swimming mode of locomotion – most commonly Caridea and Dendrobranchiata of the decapod order, although some crustaceans outside of this order are ref ...
and saltwater fish.Gernet, 134. The memory and patience of waiters had to be keen; in the larger restaurants, serving dinner parties that required twenty or so dishes became a hassle if even a slight error occurred. If a guest reported the mistake of a waiter to the head of the restaurant, the waiter could be verbally reprimanded, have his salary docked, or in extreme cases, kicked out of the establishment for good. In the early morning in Hangzhou, along the wide avenue of the Imperial Way, special breakfast items and delicacies were sold.Gernet, 183–184 This included fried
tripe Tripe is a type of edible lining from the stomachs of various farm animals. Most tripe is from cattle, pigs and sheep. Types of tripe Beef tripe Beef tripe is made from the muscle wall (the interior mucosal lining is removed) of a cow's ...
, pieces of
mutton Lamb, hogget, and mutton, generically sheep meat, are the meat of domestic sheep, ''Ovis aries''. A sheep in its first year is a lamb and its meat is also lamb. The meat from sheep in their second year is hogget. Older sheep meat is mutton. Gen ...
or
goose A goose ( : geese) is a bird of any of several waterfowl species in the family Anatidae. This group comprises the genera '' Anser'' (the grey geese and white geese) and ''Branta'' (the black geese). Some other birds, mostly related to the ...
, soups of various kinds, hot pancakes, steamed pancakes, and iced cakes. Noodle shops were also popular, and remained open all day and night along the Imperial Way.Gernet, 184. According to one Song source on Kaifeng, the night markets closed at the third night watch but reopened on the fifth, while they had also gained a reputation for staying open during winter storms and the darkest, rainiest days of winter. There were also some exotic foreign foods imported to China from abroad, including raisins, dates, Persian jujubes, and grape wine;
rice wine Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage fermented and distilled from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Rice wine is made by the fermentation of rice starch that has been converted to sugars. Microbes are the s ...
was more common in China, a fact noted even by the 13th century
Venetian Venetian often means from or related to: * Venice, a city in Italy * Veneto, a region of Italy * Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area Venetian and the like may also refer to: * Venetian language, a Romance language s ...
traveler
Marco Polo Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
.Gernet, 134–135. Although grape-based wine had been known in China since the ancient Han dynasty Chinese ventured into
Hellenistic In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
Central Asia, grape-wine was often reserved for the elite. Besides wine, other beverages included pear juice,
lychee Lychee (US: ; UK: ; ''Litchi chinensis''; ) is a Monotypic taxon, monotypic taxon and the sole member in the genus ''Litchi'' in the Sapindus, soapberry family, ''Sapindaceae''. It is a tropical tree native to Southeast and Southwest China (t ...
fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, tea, and pawpaw juice.Gernet, 138.Gernet, 184–185. Dairy products and farming were foreign concepts to the Chinese, which explains the absence of cheese and milk in their diet.Gernet, 135. Beef was also rarely eaten, since the bull was an important draft animal. The main diet of the lower classes remained rice, pork, and salted fish, while it is known from restaurant dinner menus that the upper classes did not eat dog meat. The rich are known to have consumed an array of different meats, such as chicken, shellfish, fallow deer, hares, partridge, pheasant, francolin, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others.Gernet, 137. Local freshwater fish from the nearby lake and river were also caught and brought to market, while the
West Lake West Lake (; ) is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. It is divided into five sections by three causeways. There are numerous temples, pagodas, gardens, and natural/artificial islands within the lake. Gushan (孤山) is the largest natural ...
provided geese and duck as well.Gernet, 136. Common fruits that were consumed included melons, pomegranates,
lychee Lychee (US: ; UK: ; ''Litchi chinensis''; ) is a Monotypic taxon, monotypic taxon and the sole member in the genus ''Litchi'' in the Sapindus, soapberry family, ''Sapindaceae''. It is a tropical tree native to Southeast and Southwest China (t ...
s,
longan ''Dimocarpus longan'', commonly known as the longan () and dragon's eye, is a tropical tree species that produces edible fruit. It is one of the better-known tropical members of the soapberry family Sapindaceae, to which the lychee and rambu ...
s, golden oranges, jujubes, Chinese and Japanese
quince The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
s, apricots and pears; in the region around Hangzhou alone, there were eleven kinds of apricots and eight different kinds of pears that were produced.West, 73–74. Specialties and combination dishes in the Song period included scented shellfish cooked in rice-wine, geese with apricots, lotus-seed soup, spicy soup with mussels and fish cooked with plums, sweet soya soup, baked sesame buns stuffed with either sour bean filling or pork tenderloin, mixed vegetable buns, fragrant candied fruit, strips of ginger and fermented beanpaste, jujube-stuffed steamed dumplings, fried chestnuts, salted fermented bean soup, fruit cooked in scented honey, and 'honey crisps' of kneaded and baked honey, flour, mutton fat and pork lard.West, 73.Rossabi, 78.West, 75.West, 75, footnote 25. Dessert molds of oiled flour and sugared honey were shaped into girls' faces or statuettes of soldiers with full armor like door guards, and were called "likeness foods" (''guoshi'').West, 89.


Philosophy

Song intellectuals sought answers to all philosophical and political questions in the
Confucian Classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...
. This renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of ancient times coincided with the decline of
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, which was then largely regarded as foreign, and as offering few solutions for practical problems. However, Buddhism in this period continued as a cultural underlay to the more accepted Confucianism and even
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
, both seen as native and pure by conservative Neo-Confucians. The continuing popularity of Buddhism can be seen with strong evidence by achievements in the arts, such as the 100 painting set of the ''Five Hundred Luohan'', completed by Lin Tinggui and Zhou Jichang in 1178. The conservative Confucian movement could be seen before the likes of Zhu Xi (1130–1200), with staunch anti-Buddhists such as Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072). In his written work of the ''Ben-lun'', he wrote of his theory for how Buddhism had so easily penetrated Chinese culture during the earlier
Southern and Northern Dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...
period. He argued that Buddhism became widely accepted when China's traditional institutions were weakened at the time. This was due to many factors, such as foreign
Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into th ...
ruling over the north, and China's political schism that caused warfare and other ills. Although
Emperor Wen of Sui The Emperor Wen of Sui (; 21 July 541 – 13 August 604), personal name Yang Jian (), Xianbei name Puliuru Jian (), alias Narayana () deriving from Buddhist terms, was the founder and the first emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. The ''Book of ...
(r. 581–604) abolished the Nine Ranks in favor of a Confucian-taught bureaucracy drafted through civil service examinations, he also heavily sponsored the popular ideology of Buddhism to legitimate his rule. Hence, it was given free rein and influence to flourish and dominate Chinese culture during the Sui and Tang periods; historian Arthur F. Wright describes Confucianism in this period as being reverted to a state of "stale archaism".Wright, 92. Ouyang Xiu wrote:
"This curse uddhismhas overspread the empire for a thousand years, and what can one man in one day do about it? The people are drunk with it, and it has entered the marrow of their bones; it is surely not to be overcome by eloquent talk. What, then, is to be done?Wright, 88.
In conclusion on how to root out the 'evil' that was Buddhism, Ouyang Xiu presented a historical example of how it could be uprooted from Chinese culture:
Of old, in the time of the
Warring States The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
, Yang Zhu and Mo Di were engaged in violent controversy.
Mencius Mencius ( ); born Mèng Kē (); or Mèngzǐ (; 372–289 BC) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who has often been described as the "second Sage", that is, second to Confucius himself. He is part of Confucius' fourth generation of discip ...
deplored this and devoted himself to teaching benevolence and righteousness. His exposition of benevolence and righteousness won the day, and the teachings of Mo Di and Yang Zhu were extirpated. In Han times the myriad schools of thought all flourished together. Tung Chung-shu deplored this and revived Confucianism. Therefore the Way of Confucius shone forth, and the myriad schools expired. This is the effect of what I have called "correcting the root cause in order to overcome the evil".Wright, 89.
Although Confucianism was cast in stark contrast to the perceived alien and morally inept Buddhism by those such as Ouyang Xiu, Confucianism nonetheless borrowed ideals of Buddhism to provide for its own revival. From
Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
Buddhism, the
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
ideal of ethical universalism with benevolent charity and relief to those in need inspired those such as Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi, along with the Song government.Wright, 93. In contrast to the earlier heavily Buddhist Tang period, where wealthy and pious Buddhist families and Buddhist temples handled much of the charity and alms to the poor, the Song government took on this ideal role instead, through its various programs of welfare and charity (refer to Society section).Wright, 93–94. In addition, the historian Arthur F. Wright notes this situation during the Song period, with philosophical nativism taking from Buddhism its earlier benevolent role:
It is true that Buddhist monks were given official appointments as managers of many of these enterprises, but the initiative came from Neo-Confucian officials. In a sense the Buddhist idea of compassion and many of the measures developed for its practical expression had been appropriated by the Chinese state.Wright, 94.
Although Buddhism lost its prominence in the elite circles and government sponsorships of Chinese society, this did not mean the disappearance of Buddhism from Chinese culture. Zen Buddhism continued to flourish during the Song period, as
Emperor Lizong of Song Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264. His original name was ...
had the monk Wuzhun Shifan share the Chán (Zen) doctrine with the imperial court. Much like the Eastern Roman Emperor
Julian the Apostate Julian ( la, Flavius Claudius Julianus; grc-gre, Ἰουλιανός ; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplat ...
promoting Roman paganism and Theurgy amongst the leading members of Roman society while pushing
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
's influence into the lower classes, so too did Neo-Confucians of the 13th century succeed in driving Buddhism out of the higher echelons of Chinese society.Brown, 93. In terms of Buddhist
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
, Zhou Dunyi influenced the beliefs and teachings of Northern Song-era Confucian scholars such as Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi (who were brothers), and was a major influence for Zhu Xi, one of the leading architects of
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) ...
. They emphasized moral self-cultivation over service to the ruler of the state (healing society's ills from the bottom-up, not the top-down), as opposed to statesmen like Fan Zhongyan or Su Shi, who pursued their agenda to advise the ruler to make the best decisions for the common good of all.Ebrey et al., 168. The Cheng brothers also taught that the workings of nature and metaphysics could be taught through the principle (li) and the vital energy (qi). The principle of nature could be moral or physical, such as the principle of marriage being moral, while the principle of trees is physical. Yet for principles to exist and function normally, there would have to be substance as well as vital energy. This allowed Song intellectuals to validate the teachings of Mencius on the innate goodness of human nature, while at the same time providing an explanation for human wrongdoing. In essence, the principle underlying a human being is good and benevolent, but vital energy has the potential to go astray and be corrupted, giving rise to selfish impulses and all other negative human traits. The Song Neo-Confucian philosophers, finding a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts, wrote commentaries on them. The most influential of these philosophers was Zhu Xi, whose synthesis of Confucian thought and Buddhist,
Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Tao ...
, and other ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Song times to the late 19th century. The basis of his teaching was influenced by the Cheng brothers, but he greatly extended their teachings, forming the core of Neo-Confucianism. This included emphasis on the Four Books: the ''Analects'', ''Mencius'', ''Doctrine of the Mean'', and the ''Great Learning'' (the latter two being chapters in the ancient
Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Boo ...
). His viewpoint was that improvement of the world began with improvement of the mind, as outlined in the ''Great Learning''.Ebrey et al., 169. His approach to Confucianism was shunned by his contemporaries, as his writings were forbidden to be cited by students taking the Imperial Examinations. However,
Emperor Lizong of Song Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264. His original name was ...
found his writing to be intriguing, reversing the policy against him, and making it a requirement for students to study his commentaries on the Four Books.


See also

*
Culture of China Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
*
Shao Yong Shao Yong (; 1011–1077), courtesy name Yaofu (堯夫), named Shào Kāngjié (邵康節) was a Chinese cosmologist, historian, philosopher, and poet who greatly influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism across China during the Song dynast ...
*
Society and culture of the Han dynasty The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Imperial China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively. It was founded ...
* Song poetry *
The Qing Ding Pearl ''The Qing Ding Pearl'' (《慶頂珠》, simplified 庆顶珠) is a Chinese play. It dates to the Song Dynasty and is still performed in adapted forms in the Beijing Opera. The play is known by other titles: Two sections ( 折 zhe) of the main ...


Notes


References

*Banhart, Richard M. et al. (1997). Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press. . *Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (2007). ''Artisans in Early Imperial China''. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press. . *Benn, Charles. 2002. ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press. . *Bodde, Derk (1991). ''Chinese Thought, Society, and Science''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. *Bol, Peter K. "The Rise of Local History: History, Geography, and Culture in Southern Song and Yuan Wuzhou," ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' (Volume 61, Number 1, 2001): 37–76. *Brown, Peter (1971). ''The World of Late Antiquity''. New York: W.W. Norton Inc. *Brownlee, John S. (1997). ''Japanese Historians and the National Myths, 1600–1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jinmu.'' Vancouver: UBC Press. . *Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, James Palais, (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. . *Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hardback); (paperback). *Gernet, Jacques (1962). ''Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276''. Translated by H. M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. *Hargett, James M. "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)," Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (July 1985): 67–93. *Hymes, Robert P. (1986). ''Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . *Kelly, Jack (2004). ''Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World''. New York: Basic Books, Perseus Books Group. *Morton, Scott and Charlton Lewis (2005). ''China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition''. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. *
Needham, Joseph Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, i ...
. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. *Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2, Agriculture''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Partington, James Riddick (1960). ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder''. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. * Pratt, Keith L. and
Richard Rutt Cecil Richard Rutt CBE (27 August 192527 July 2011) was an English Roman Catholic priest and a former Anglican bishop. Rutt spent almost 20 years of his life serving as an Anglican missionary in South Korea, a country for which he developed ...
. (1999). ''Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary''. Surrey: Curzon Press. . *Rossabi, Morris (1988). ''Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times''. Berkeley: University of California Press. . * Sivin, Nathan. (1995). ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections''. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. *Sorensen, Henrik H. 1995. "Buddhist Sculptures from the Song Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan," Artibus Asiae (Vol. LV, 3/4, 1995): 281–302. *Walton, Linda (1999). ''Academies and Society in Southern Sung China''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. *West, Stephen H. "Playing With Food: Performance, Food, and The Aesthetics of Artificiality in The Sung and Yuan," ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' (Volume 57, Number 1, 1997): 67–106. * Wright, Arthur F. (1959). ''Buddhism in Chinese History''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. *Wu, Jing-nuan (2005). ''An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica''. New York: Oxford University Press.


Further reading

*


External links


Song Dynasty art and video commentary at Minneapolis Institute of Arts
{{DEFAULTSORT:Culture Of The Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
Song dynasty