A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a
revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part.
The
adjective
In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the ma ...
"counter-revolutionary" pertains to movements that would restore the state of affairs, or the principles, that prevailed during a prerevolutionary era.
Definition
A counter-revolution is opposition or resistance to a revolutionary movement.
It can refer to attempts to defeat a revolutionary movement before it takes power, as well as attempts to restore the old regime after a successful revolution.
Europe
France
The word "counter-revolutionary" originally referred to thinkers who opposed themselves to the 1789
French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in coup of 18 Brumaire, November 1799. Many of its ...
, such as
Joseph de Maistre
Joseph Marie, comte de Maistre (; 1 April 1753 – 26 February 1821) was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat who advocated social hierarchy and monarchy in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Despite his clo ...
,
Louis de Bonald
Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte de Bonald (2 October 1754 – 23 November 1840) was a French counter-revolutionary philosopher and politician. He is mainly remembered for developing a theoretical framework from which French sociology would ...
or, later,
Charles Maurras
Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras (; ; 20 April 1868 – 16 November 1952) was a French author, politician, poet, and critic. He was an organizer and principal philosopher of ''Action Française'', a political movement that is monarchist, anti-par ...
, the founder of the ''
Action française
Action may refer to:
* Action (narrative), a literary mode
* Action fiction, a type of genre fiction
* Action game, a genre of video game
Film
* Action film, a genre of film
* ''Action'' (1921 film), a film by John Ford
* ''Action'' (1980 fil ...
'' monarchist movement. More recently, it has been used in France to describe political movements that reject the legacy of the 1789 Revolution, which historian
René Rémond has referred to as ''
légitimistes
The Legitimists (french: Légitimistes) are royalists who adhere to the rights of dynastic succession to the French crown of the descendants of the eldest branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which was overthrown in the 1830 July Revolution. They ...
''. Thus,
monarchist supporters of the ''
Ancien Régime'' following the French Revolution were counter-revolutionaries, as were supporters of the
Revolt in the Vendée and of the monarchies that put down the various
Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in Europea ...
. The royalist legitimist counter-revolutionary French movement survives to this day, albeit marginally. It was active during the purported "''
Révolution nationale
The ''Révolution nationale'' (, ''National Revolution'') was the official ideological program promoted by the Vichy regime (the “French State”) which had been established in July 1940 and led by Marshal Philippe Pétain. Pétain's regime wa ...
''" enacted by
Vichy France, though, which has been considered by René Rémond not as a
fascist regime but as a counter-revolutionary regime, whose motto was ''Travail, Famille, Patrie'' ("Work, Family, Fatherland"), which replaced the
Republican
Republican can refer to:
Political ideology
* An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law.
** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...
motto ''
Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité''.
After the French Revolution, anti-clerical policies and the execution of King Louis XVI led to the
Revolt in the Vendee. This counter-revolution produced what is considered by most historians to be the first modern
genocide. Monarchists and Catholics took up arms against the revolutionaries' French Republic in 1793 after the government asked that 300,000 men be conscripted into the Republican military in what was called the levée en masse. The Vendeans also rose up against
Napoleon's attempt to conscript them in 1815.
Germany
The
German Empire, and its predecessors the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
and
German Confederation, operated under counterrevolutionary principles, with these monarchical federations crushing attempted uprisings in, for example,
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
. After the
1867
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world. It was renamed a ...
–
71 creation of a new German realm by
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an ...
, chancellor
Otto von Bismarck used policies favored by Socialists (such as state-sponsored healthcare) to undercut the opponents of the monarchy and protect it against revolution.
Not long after the
German Revolution of 1918–1919 and signing of the
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles (french: Traité de Versailles; german: Versailler Vertrag, ) was the most important of the peace treaties of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June ...
, a failed
coup d'état known as the
Kapp Putsch was instigated by various elements opposed to the
Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is ...
. It was led principally by
Wolfgang Kapp and
Walther von Lüttwitz.
During the Weimar era, the German Realm became an ideological battlefield between "red" and "white" factions, with the state eventually becoming bifurcated between the conservative
Junker nobility which dominated the army and other high offices, including the presidency with Field Marshal
Paul von Hindenburg, and the leftist revolutionaries who attempted several coups in the 1920s and later gained a base in parliament via the
Communist Party of Germany, which, being internationalist in nature, opposed the extremist nationalism of the new
Nazi Party
The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported t ...
. The Nazis, by making common cause with the counterrevolutionaries against the Communists, effected a takeover of the German state, at first under the adopted imagery of the monarchical era and only later (after the death of Hindenburg) under purely Nazi imagery.
The Nazis did not publicly characterise themselves as counterrevolutionaries; they condemned the traditional German forces of conservatism (e.g., Prussian
monarchists, Junkers, and
Roman Catholic clergy), for example in the Nazi Party march ''
Die Fahne hoch'' which labeled them as reactionaries (''Reaktion'') and counted them together with the
Red Front as enemies of the Nazis. Nevertheless, in practice the Nazis supported many of the same ideas as the counterrevolutionary factions and virulently opposed revolutionary
Marxism
Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict and a dialectical ...
(e.g., using the conservative
Freikorps to crush Communist uprisings), ostensibly idealising German tradition, folklore, and heroes, such as
Frederick the Great. The fact that the Nazis called their 1933 rise to power the ''national revolution'' showed that they understood the popular hunger for some type of radical change; nonetheless, they understood the equally powerful popular impulse toward stability and continuity, and rejected the parliamentarianism of the
Weimar Constitution as merely a first step towards Bolshevism. Thus, for instance, they catered to reactionary tendencies among the German people by
propagandistic demonstrations linking the Nazi state to the traditional ''
Reich
''Reich'' (; ) is a German noun whose meaning is analogous to the meaning of the English word "realm"; this is not to be confused with the German adjective "reich" which means "rich". The terms ' (literally the "realm of an emperor") and ' (lit ...
'' ("realm" or "empire") by referring to it informally as the ''
"Drittes Reich"'' ("Third Realm"), implying a specious continuity between it and the historic German entities appealing to German reactionaries: the Holy Roman Empire (the "First Realm") and the German Empire (the "Second Realm"). (See also
reactionary modernism
Reactionary modernism is a term first coined by Jeffrey Herf in the 1980s, to describe the mixture of "great enthusiasm for modern technology with a rejection of the Enlightenment and the values and institutions of liberal democracy" which was c ...
.)
Great Britain
Many historians have held that the rise and spread of
Methodism
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's br ...
in Great Britain prevented the development of a revolution there. In addition to preaching the Christian Gospel,
John Wesley and his Methodist followers visited those imprisoned, as well as the poor and aged, building hospitals and
dispensaries
A dispensary is an office in a school, hospital, industrial plant, or other organization that dispenses medications, medical supplies, and in some cases even medical and dental treatment. In a traditional dispensary set-up, a pharmacist dispense ...
which provided free healthcare for the masses.
The sociologist William H. Swatos stated that "Methodist enthusiasm transformed men, summoning them to assert rational control over their own lives, while providing in its system of mutual discipline the psychological security necessary for autonomous conscience and liberal ideals to become internalized, an integrated part of the 'new men' ... regenerated by Wesleyan preaching."
The practice of
temperance among Methodists, as well as their rejection of
gambling
Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of value ("the stakes") on a random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy are discounted. Gambling thus requires three el ...
, allowed them to eliminate
secondary poverty
Secondary poverty is a description of poverty referring to those living below the poverty line whose income was sufficient for them to live above the line, but was spent on things other than the necessities of life.
In 18th and 19th century Great ...
and accumulate capital.
Individuals who attended Methodist chapels and
Sunday schools "took into industrial and political life the qualities and talents they had developed within Methodism and used them on behalf of the working classes in non-revolutionary ways." The spread of the Methodist Church in Great Britain, author and professor Michael Hill states, "filled both a social ''and'' an ideological vacuum" in English society, thus "opening up the channels of social and ideological mobility ... which worked against the polarization of English society into rigid social classes."
The historian
Bernard Semmel argues that "Methodism was an antirevolutionary movement that succeeded (to the extent that it did) because it was a revolution of a radically different kind" that was capable of effecting social change on a large scale.
Italy
In Italy, after being conquered by Napoleon's army in the late 18th century, there was a counter-revolution in all the
French client republics. The most well-known was the
Sanfedismo
Sanfedismo (from ''Santa Fede'', "Holy Faith" in Italian) was a popular anti-Jacobin movement, organized by Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, which mobilized peasants of the Kingdom of Naples against the Pro-French Parthenopaean Republic in 1799, its ai ...
, a reactionary movement led by the cardinal
Fabrizio Ruffo, which overthrew the
Parthenopean Republic
The Parthenopean Republic ( it, Repubblica Partenopea, french: République Parthénopéenne) or Neapolitan Republic (''Repubblica Napoletana'') was a short-lived, semi-autonomous republic located within the Kingdom of Naples and supported by the ...
and allowed the
Bourbon dynasty to return to the throne of the
Kingdom of Naples. A resurgence of the phenomenon happened during the Napoleon's
second Italian campaign in the early 19th century. Another example of counter-revolution was the peasants' rebellion in Southern Italy after the
national unification, fomented by the Bourbon government in exile and the
Papal States. The revolt, labelled pejoratively by opponents as
brigandage, resulted in a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years.
Austria
In the
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (german: link=no, Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling , ) was a Central-Eastern European multinational great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence ...
, a revolt took place against Napoleon called the
Tyrolean Rebellion
The Tyrolean Rebellion (german: Tiroler Volksaufstand) is a name given to the resistance of militiamen, peasants, craftsmen and other civilians of the County of Tyrol led by Andreas Hofer supported by his wife Anna and a strategic council cons ...
in 1809. Led by a Tyrolean innkeeper by the name of
Andreas Hofer
Andreas Hofer (22 November 1767 – 20 February 1810) was a Tyrolean innkeeper and drover, who in 1809 became the leader of the Tyrolean Rebellion against the Napoleonic and Bavarian invasion during the War of the Fifth Coalition. He was subs ...
, 20,000 Tyrolean Rebels fought successfully against Napoleon's troops. However, Hofer was ultimately betrayed by the
Treaty of Schönbrunn
The Treaty of Schönbrunn (french: Traité de Schönbrunn; german: Friede von Schönbrunn), sometimes known as the Peace of Schönbrunn or Treaty of Vienna, was signed between France and Austria at Schönbrunn Palace near Vienna on 14 October ...
, which led to the disbandment of his troops and was captured and executed in 1810.
Spain
The
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebelión, link ...
was a counter-revolution. Supporters of
Carlism, monarchy, and nationalism (see
Falange) joined forces against the (Second) Spanish Republic in 1936. The counter-revolutionaries saw the
Spanish Constitution of 1931
The Spanish Constitution of 1931 was approved by the Constituent Assembly on 9 December 1931. It was the constitution of the Second Spanish Republic (founded 14 April 1931) and was in force until 1 April 1939. This was the second period of Spanis ...
as a revolutionary document that defied Spanish culture, tradition and religion. On the Republican side, the acts of the
Communist Party of Spain
The Communist Party of Spain ( es, Partido Comunista de España; PCE) is a Marxist-Leninist party that, since 1986, has been part of the United Left coalition, which is part of Unidas Podemos. It currently has two of its politicians serving a ...
against the rural collectives are also sometimes considered counter-revolutionary. The Carlist cause began with the
First Carlist War in 1833 and continues to the present.
Russia
The
White Army and its supporters who tried to defeat the
Bolsheviks after the
October Revolution
The October Revolution,. officially known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. in the Soviet Union, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was a key mome ...
, as well as the German politicians, police, soldiers and
Freikorps who crushed the
German Revolution of 1918–1919, were also counter-revolutionaries. The Bolshevik government tried to build an anti-revolutionary image for the
Green armies
The Green armies (russian: Зеленоармейцы), also known as the Green Army (Зелёная Армия) or Greens (Зелёные), were armed peasant groups which fought against all governments in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 ...
composed of peasant rebels. The largest
peasant rebellion against Bolshevik rule occurred in 1920–21 in
Tambov
Tambov (, ; rus, Тамбов, p=tɐmˈbof) is a city and the administrative center of Tambov Oblast, central Russia, at the confluence of the Tsna and Studenets Rivers, about south-southeast of Moscow. Population: 280,161 ( 2010 Census); 29 ...
.
Hispanic America
General
Victoriano Huerta, and later the
Felicistas
Felicistas were the supporters of Félix Díaz, nephew of former president Porfirio Diaz Porfirio is a given name in Spanish, derived from the Greek Porphyry (''porphyrios'' "purple-clad").
It can refer to:
* Porfirio Salinas – Mexican-Amer ...
, attempted to thwart the
Mexican Revolution in the 1910s. In the late 1920s, Mexican Catholics took up arms against the Mexican Federal Government in what became known as the
Cristero War
The Cristero War ( es, Guerra Cristera), also known as the Cristero Rebellion or es, La Cristiada, label=none, italics=no , was a widespread struggle in central and western Mexico from 1 August 1926 to 21 June 1929 in response to the implementa ...
. The President of Mexico, Plutarco Elias Calles, was elected in 1924. Calles began carrying out anti-Catholic policies which caused peaceful resistance from Catholics in 1926. The counter-revolution began as a movement of peaceful resistance against the anti-clerical laws. In the Summer of 1926, fighting broke out. The fighters known as Cristeros fought the government due to its suppression of the Church, jailing and execution of priests, formation of a nationalist schismatic church,
state atheism
State atheism is the incorporation of positive atheism or non-theism into political regimes. It may also refer to large-scale secularization attempts by governments. It is a form of religion-state relationship that is usually ideologically l ...
, Socialism, Freemasonry and other harsh anti-Catholic policies.
The 1961
Bay of Pigs invasion into
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
was conducted by counter-revolutionaries who hoped to overthrow the revolutionary government of
Fidel Castro. In the 1980s, the ''
Contra
Contra may refer to:
Places
* Contra, Virginia
* Contra Costa Canal, an aqueduct in the U.S. state of California
* Contra Costa County, California
* Tenero-Contra, a municipality in the district of Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland ...
-Revolución'' rebels fighting to overthrow the revolutionary
Sandinista
The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( es, Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, FSLN) is a socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas () in both English and Spanish. The party is named after Augusto C� ...
government in
Nicaragua. In fact, the Contras received their name precisely because they were counter-revolutionaries.
The
Black Eagles, the
AUC, and other
paramilitary movements of
Colombia can also be seen as counter-revolutionary. These
right-wing groups are opposition to the
FARC
The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People's Army ( es, link=no, Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de ColombiaEjército del Pueblo, FARC–EP or FARC) is a Marxist–Leninist guerrilla group involved in the continuing Colombian confl ...
, and other
left-wing guerrilla movements.
Some counter-revolutionaries are former
revolutionaries
A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective, to refer to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor.
...
who supported the initial overthrow of the previous regime, but came to differ with those who ultimately came to power after the revolution. For example, some of the Contras originally fought with the Sandinistas to overthrow
Anastasio Somoza, and some of those who oppose Castro also opposed
Batista.
Asia
Japan
During the
Bakumatsu
was the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended. Between 1853 and 1867, Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as and changed from a feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern empire of the Meiji governm ...
period of the mid 19th century, especially during the
Japanese civil war of the 1868 to 1869 the Pro-Bakufu forces and especially the Samurai (and after the period Ex-Samurai) were left without money since their skills are obsolete. And so they banded up with the Eastern Shogunate led by the ''Shogun''
Tokugawa Yoshinobu who wished to drive foreign and especially Western European and
American Influence against the Revolutionaries of
Emperor Meiji who sought to modernize Japan with the states of
Western Europe as Japan's Example. The war ended with a small number of casualties, most of whom were the Samurai. Years later though, Western Samurai and Imperial Modernists then engaged in the deadlier Satsuma Rebellion.
China
In 1917 during the
Warlord Era general
Zhang Xun attempted to reverse the
1911 Revolution that brought an end to the
Qing dynasty by seizing
Beijing in the
Manchu Restoration.
The anti-Communist (and thus counterrevolutionary)
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Tai ...
party in China used the term "counter-revolutionary" to disparage the communists and other opponents of its regime.
Chiang Kai-shek, the Kuomintang party leader, was the chief user of this term.
The reason that the nominally conservative Kuomintang used this terminology was that the party had several leftist revolutionary influences in its ideology left over from the party's beginnings. The Kuomintang, and Chiang Kai-shek used the words "
feudal" and "counter-revolutionary" as synonyms for evil, and backwardness, and proudly proclaimed themselves to be
revolutionary. Chiang called the warlords feudalists, and called for feudalism and counter-revolutionaries to be stamped out by the Kuomintang.
Chiang showed extreme rage when he was called a warlord, because of its negative, feudal connotations.
Chiang also crushed and dominated the merchants of Shanghai in 1927, seizing loans from them, with the threats of death or exile. Rich
merchants
A merchant is a person who trades in commodities produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Historically, a merchant is anyone who is involved in business or trade. Merchants have operated for as long as industry ...
,
industrialists, and
entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurship is the creation or extraction of economic value. With this definition, entrepreneurship is viewed as change, generally entailing risk beyond what is normally encountered in starting a business, which may include other values t ...
were arrested by Chiang, who accused them of being "counter-revolutionary", and Chiang held them until they gave money to the Kuomintang. Chiang's arrests targeted rich millionaires, accusing them of communism and counter-revolutionary activities. Chiang also enforced an anti-Japanese boycott, sending his agents to sack the shops of those who sold Japanese made items and fining them. He also disregarded the internationally protected International Settlement, putting cages on its borders in which he threatened to place the merchants. The Kuomintang's alliance with the
Green Gang
The Green Gang () was a Chinese secret society and criminal organization, which was prominent in criminal, social and political activity in Shanghai during the early to mid 20th century.
History
Origins
As a secret society, the origins and hist ...
allowed it to ignore the borders of the foreign concessions.
A similar term also existed in the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, which includes charges such collaborating with foreign forces and inciting revolts against the government and ruling
CCP. According to Article 28 of the
Chinese constitution
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China is the supreme law of the People's Republic of China. It was adopted by the 5th National People's Congress on December 4, 1982, with further revisions about every five years. It is the fou ...
, ''The state maintains public order and suppresses treasonable and other counter-revolutionary activities; It penalizes actions that endanger public security and disrupt the socialist economy and other criminal activities, and punishes and reforms criminals.''
The term received wide usage during the
Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
, in which thousands of intellectuals and government officials were denounced as "counter-revolutionaries" by the
Red Guards
Red Guards () were a mass student-led paramilitary social movement mobilized and guided by Chairman Mao Zedong in 1966 through 1967, during the first phase of the Cultural Revolution, which he had instituted.Teiwes According to a Red Guard lead ...
. Following the end of the Cultural Revolution, the term was also used to label
Lin Biao
)
, serviceyears = 1925–1971
, branch = People's Liberation Army
, rank = Marshal of the People's Republic of China Lieutenant general of the National Revolutionary Army, Republic of China
, commands ...
and the
Gang of Four.
Usage of the term
The word ''counter-revolutionary'' is often used interchangeably with ''
reactionary''; however, some reactionary people use the term ''counter-revolutionary'' to describe their opponents, even if those opponents were advocates of a revolution. In general, the word "reactionary" is used to describe those who oppose a more long-term trend of social change, while "counter-revolutionaries" are those who oppose a very recent and sudden change.
The clerics who took power following the
Iranian Revolution
The Iranian Revolution ( fa, انقلاب ایران, Enqelâb-e Irân, ), also known as the Islamic Revolution ( fa, انقلاب اسلامی, Enqelâb-e Eslâmī), was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dyna ...
became ''counter-revolutionaries''; after the revolution the Marxists were driven out of power by the mullahs. Thousands of political prisoners who opposed the
Islamist regime were killed especially during the
1988 Massacre of Iranian Prisoners.
Sometimes it is unclear who represents the revolution and who represents the counter-revolution. In Hungary, the
1956 uprising was condemned as a ''counter-revolution'' by the ruling Communist authorities (who claimed to be revolutionary themselves). However, thirty years later after the fall of the revolutionary Socialist regime and the country's return to the Classical world order, the events of 1956 were more widely known as a ''revolution'', this being in the broad sense of rebellion against authority and not meant as an ideological statement.
References
Further reading
* Blum, Christopher Olaf, editor and translator, 2004. ''Critics of the Enlightenment: Readings in the French Counter-Revolutionary Tradition''. Wilmington DE
ISI Books.*
Edmund Burke, 2006 (1790). ''
Reflections on the Revolution in France
''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' is a political pamphlet written by the Irish statesman Edmund Burke and published in November 1790. It is fundamentally a contrast of the French Revolution to that time with the unwritten British Const ...
''. Pearson Longmans.
Ghervas, Stella ''Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance''. Paris, Honoré Champion, 2008.
*
Thomas Molnar
Thomas Steven Molnar (; hu, Molnár Tamás; 26 July 1921, in Budapest, Hungary – 20 July 2010, in Richmond, Virginia) was a Catholic philosopher, historian and political theorist.
Life
Molnar completed his undergraduate studies at the Univer ...
, 1969
''The Counter-Revolution''.Funk & Wagnalls Co.
* Schapiro, J Salwyn, 1949. ''Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism: Social Forces in England and France, 1815-1870''. McGraw-Hill: p. 364.
External links
{{Interwiki extra, qid=Q755138
Political slurs for people
Revolution terminology