Coprophilous fungi (''dung-loving'' fungi) are a type of

saprobic Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ( ...

fungi that grow on animal dung. The hardy spores of coprophilous species are unwittingly consumed by herbivores from vegetation, and are excreted along with the plant matter. The fungi then flourish in the feces, before releasing their spores to the surrounding area.

Life cycle

Coprophilous fungi release their

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, ...

s to the surrounding vegetation, which is then eaten by

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpar ...

s. The spores then remain in the animal as the plants are digested, pass through the animal's

intestines The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans and ...

and are finally

defecated Defecation (or defaecation) follows digestion, and is a necessary process by which organisms eliminate a solid, semisolid, or liquid waste material known as feces from the digestive tract via the anus. The act has a variety of names ranging fro ...

. The fruiting bodies of the fungi then grow from the animal feces.Pegler, p. 162 It is essential that the spores of the species then reach new plant material; spores remaining in the feces will produce nothing. As such, some species have developed means of discharging spores a large distance. An example of this is the genus ''

Pilobolus ''Pilobolus'' is a genus of fungi that commonly grows on herbivore dung. Life cycle The life cycle of ''Pilobolus'' begins with a black sporangium that has been discharged onto a plant substrate such as grass. A herbivorous animal such as a ...

''. Fruiting bodies of ''Pilobolus'' will suddenly rupture, sending the contents over 2 metres away. Animal feces provide an environment rich in nitrogenous material as well as various

enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...

s from the animal's

digestive system The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller compone ...

. The spores themselves survive digestion by being particularly thick-walled, allowing them to germinate in the dung with minimum competition from other organisms. This thick wall is often broken down during digestion, readying the spore for germination. The spores are so hardy that samples of dried dung can later be rehydrated, allowing the fungus to fruit weeks later.

Distribution

The distribution of coprophilous fungi is closely linked to the distribution of the herbivores on which they rely, such as rabbits, deer, cattle, horses and sheep. Some species rely on a specific species for dung; for instance, '' Coprinus radiatus'' and '' Panaeolus campanulatus'' grow almost exclusively on horse feces,Pegler, p. 164 while others, such as '' Panaeolus sphinctrinus'', can grow on any feces or even just particularly

fertile soil Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality.

. Further, some species (such as ''

Conocybe rickenii ''Conocybe rickenii'' is a mushroom from the genus ''Conocybe''. Its edibility is disputed, and it has the appearance of a typical little brown mushroom with a small, conical cap, and long, thin stem. In colour, it is generally a cream-brow ...

'') can be found in large numbers in areas where

manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the Soil fertility, fertility of soil by adding organic ma ...

has been used as a soil

fertilizer A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...

, such as in gardens.Pegler, p. 163 Some coprophilous fungi are also known to grow from the dung of

omnivore An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nu ...

s (such as ''

Chaetomium globisporum ''Chaetomium'' is a genus of fungi in the Chaetomiaceae family. It is a dematiaceous (dark-walled) mold normally found in soil, air, cellulose and plant debris. According to the ''Dictionary of the Fungi'' (10th edition, 2008), there are about ...

'' from rat droppings) or even

carnivore A carnivore , or meat-eater (Latin, ''caro'', genitive ''carnis'', meaning meat or "flesh" and ''vorare'' meaning "to devour"), is an animal or plant whose food and energy requirements derive from animal tissues (mainly muscle, fat and other s ...

s (such as ''

Chaetomium rajasthanense ''Chaetomium'' is a genus of fungi in the Chaetomiaceae family. It is a dematiaceous (dark-walled) mold normally found in soil, air, cellulose and plant debris. According to the ''Dictionary of the Fungi'' (10th edition, 2008), there are about ...

'', from

tiger The tiger (''Panthera tigris'') is the largest living Felidae, cat species and a member of the genus ''Panthera''. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily pr ...

feces).

Mushroom-producing species

Although not all coprophilous fungi produce mushrooms, there are many that do, particularly in the genera ''

Coprinopsis ''Coprinopsis'' is a genus of mushrooms in the family Psathyrellaceae. ''Coprinopsis'' was split out of the genus ''Coprinus'' based on molecular data. The species ''Coprinopsis cinerea'' (='' Coprinus cinereus'') is a model organism for mushr ...

'', ''

Panaeolus ''Panaeolus'' is a genus of small, black-spored, saprotrophic agarics. The word ''Panaeolus'' is Greek for "all variegated", alluding to the spotted gills of the mushrooms produced. Characteristics These fungi are mostly dung and grasslan ...

'' and '' Deconica''. Known species include: *''

Bolbitius vitellinus ''Bolbitius titubans'', also known as ''Bolbitius vitellinus'', is a widespread species of mushroom found in America The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country ...

'' *''

Conocybe moseri ''Conocybe moseri'' is a mushroom species in the family Bolbitiaceae. It was described as new to science in 1980 by mycologist Roy Watling Roy Watling , PhD., DSc, FRSE, F.I.Biol., C.Biol., FLS (born 1938) is a Scottish mycologist who has ma ...

'' *''

Conocybe pubescens ''Conocybe'' is a genus of mushrooms with ''Conocybe tenera'' as the type species and at least 243 other species. There are at least 50 different species in North America. Most have a long, thin fragile stipe and are delicate, growing in gras ...

'' *''

'' *'' Coprinopsis acuminata'' *''

Coprinopsis cinerea ''Coprinopsis cinerea'' is a species of mushroom in the family Psathyrellaceae. Commonly known as the gray shag, it is edible, but must be used promptly after collecting. ''Coprinopsis cinerea'' is an important model organism for studying fung ...

'' *'' Coprinopsis narcotica '' *'' Coprinopsis patouillardii'' *'' Coprinopsis radiata'' *''

Crucibulum laeve ''Crucibulum'' is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of fall ...

'' *''

Cyathus stercoreus ''Cyathus stercoreus'', commonly known as the dung-loving bird's nest or the dung bird's nest, is a species of fungus in the genus '' Cyathus'', family Nidulariaceae. Like other species in the Nidulariaceae, the fruiting bodies of ''C. sterc ...

'' *'' Deconica coprophila''Pegler, p. 165 *'' Deconica merdaria'' *'' Panaeolus papilionaceus'' *'' Panaeolus semiovatus'' *'' Protostropharia'' (all species) *'' Psilocybe cubensis''

Life cycle

Distribution

Mushroom-producing species

References

Further reading