The Comoro Islands or Comoros ( Shikomori ''Komori''; ar, جزر القمر , ''Juzur al-qamar''; french: Les Comores) form an archipelago of volcanic islands situated off the southeastern coast of Africa, to the east of Mozambique and northwest of Madagascar. The islands are politically divided between the

Union of the Comoros The Comoros,, ' officially the Union of the Comoros,; ar, الاتحاد القمري ' is an independent country made up of three islands in southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. ...

, a sovereign country, and Mayotte, an Overseas Department of France.

Geography

The Comoro Islands are located in the Mozambique Channel to the north-west of Madagascar and facing Mozambique. These volcanic islands, covering a total area of 2034 km², are as follows: *

Ngazidja Grande Comore () is an island in Comoros off the coast of Africa. It is the largest island in the Comoros nation. Most of its population is of the Comorian ethnic group. Its population is about 316,600. The island's capital is Moroni, which i ...

(also known as ''Grande Comore''): the largest island of the

, with its capital Moroni * Ndzuwani (also known as ''Anjouan''): part of the Union of the Comoros * Mwali (also known as ''Mohéli''): part of the Union of the Comoros * Mayotte (also known as ''Maore''): a French overseas department. Mayotte is composed of two islands,

Grande-Terre Grande-Terre Island (french: île de Grande-Terre / île de la Grande-Terre; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwantè) is the name of the eastern-half of Guadeloupe proper, in the Lesser Antilles. It is separated from the other half of Guadeloupe ...

and Petite-Terre (also known as ''Pamanzi''). where the Dzaoudzi–Pamandzi International Airport is located. The Glorioso Islands, comprising ''Grande Glorieuse'', '' Île du Lys'' and eight little rock islets, were administratively attached to the archipelago before 1975, and, geologically speaking, form a part of the archipelago. Notable reefs that are part of the archipelago are as follows: * Banc Vailheu, or ''Raya'', a submerged volcano located 20 km west of Grand Comoro * Banc du Geyser, a reef measuring 8 by 5 km in area, situated 130 km North-East of Grande-Terre * Banc du Leven, a former island between Madagascar and Grande-Terre which is now submerged

History

The Comoros may have been settled as early as the 6th century; among the peoples who crossed the sea to populate the islands are Bantu-speaking peoples, Austronesian (including Malagasy),

Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, No ...

Somalis The Somalis ( so, Soomaalida 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖, ar, صوماليون) are an ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and history. The Lowland East Cushitic Somali language is the shared mo ...

Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...

, French, and Indians. Islam probably arrived during the 10th century. The Comoros islands formed, with Zanzibar, Pemba,

Lamu Lamu or Lamu Town is a small town on Lamu Island, which in turn is a part of the Lamu Archipelago in Kenya. Situated by road northeast of Mombasa that ends at Mokowe Jetty, from where the sea channel has to be crossed to reach Lamu Island ...

, and the coastal towns of Kenya and Tanzania, a united and prosperous region of Swahili culture, trading in local goods which were exported to the African coast, Madagascar, the Middle East and India. In that period, political power was in the hands of local rulers. During their explorations of the Comoros region, the Portuguese made landfall on the Islands of the Moon, in 1505; ''kamar'' is Arabic for ''moon''. During the colonial period, French settlers established plantations, initially producing sugar, then, in the twentieth century, perfume plants and spices such as

ylang ylang ''Cananga odorata'', known as ylang-ylang ( ) or cananga tree, is a tropical tree that is native to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Queensland, Australia. It is also native to parts of Thailand and Viet ...

, vanilla and

cloves Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, ''Syzygium aromaticum'' (). They are native to the Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring or fragrance in consumer products, ...

as well as

copra Copra (from ) is the dried, white flesh of the coconut from which coconut oil is extracted. Traditionally, the coconuts are sun-dried, especially for export, before the oil, also known as copra oil, is pressed out. The oil extracted from cop ...

. In 1946, the Comoros became a

French overseas territory Overseas France (french: France d'outre-mer) consists of 13 French-administered territories outside Europe, mostly the remains of the French colonial empire that chose to remain a part of the French state under various statuses after decolo ...

. In 1974, France organized a referendum for self-determination in the archipelago in which the population except in Mayotte voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence. Following the unilateral declaration of independence in 1975, France maintained sovereignty over Mayotte. The three remaining islands formed the ''Etat Comorian'', which later became the ''Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoro Islands'' and is today the

. In 1996, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961 crashed off the shore of the grande island. 125 people died onboard, including three hijackers who where the ones responsible for the crash, 50 people survived. Plane crash 1

Gungu la mcezo contre la France à Mayotte

In 1997, demands for increased autonomy on the islands of Ndzuani (Anjouan) and Mwali (Moheli) led to the breakup of the Federal Islamic Republic. In 2001, the government reformed as the ''Union of the Comoros'' under a new constitution which gave each of the three islands more autonomy than had been enjoyed previously. In 2008, the President of Anjouan refused to hold free elections. He was forced to flee following military intervention by troops of the Comorian Union and the

African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the Africa ...

. The island country continues its present form of confederal government, albeit with minor changes approved in referendums in 2009 and 2018.http://www.ksu.edu/sasw/comoros/ Mayotte, which had voted to retain French suzerainty in the 1975 referendum, expressed a wish to accede to the status of a ''département d'outre-mer'' (DOM) ( Overseas Department) following another referendum held on the island on the 29 March 2009. Mayotte officially became France's 101st department on 31 March 2011.

Geology

The Comoro Archipelago consists of volcanic islands. These volcanic islands, together with the high mountains in the north of Madagascar, were formed in the

Tertiary Tertiary ( ) is a widely used but obsolete term for the geologic period from 66 million to 2.6 million years ago. The period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, at the start ...

and Quaternary periods. The island of Mayotte is the oldest one still above sea level and underwent three volcanic phases between 15 million and 500,000 years ago. The ages progressively decrease from east to west. Grande Comore is the youngest island and is still volcanically active.

Karthala Mount Karthala or Karthola ( ar, القرطالة ''Al Qirṭālah'') is an active volcano and the highest point of the Comoros at above sea level. It is the southernmost and larger of the two shield volcanoes forming Grande Comore island, the ...

, a shield volcano occupying some two thirds of the island, rises to 2361 meters. The summit

caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption. When large volumes of magma are erupted over a short time, structural support for the rock above the magma chamber i ...

is quite large, being approximately 3 x 4 km (1.9 x 2.5 miles) in size at the rim (2007).

Climate

The Comoro Archipelago enjoys a tropical maritime climate, characterized by slight daytime temperature variations throughout the year of around at sea level and by abundant precipitation: a year. The average temperature of the sea water is . There are two seasons in the Comoros: the hot and humid season flowing in from the north-west from November to April and the dry season from May to October. The climate on Mayotte is, nevertheless, noticeably warmer and drier. The climate is also characterized by important local variations in temperature and precipitation according to altitude, relief and the degree of exposure to the elements. Annual precipitation therefore varies in the region of and the absolute minimum of is reached on the summit of

. The hot, dry season is caused by a vast

low pressure In meteorology, a low-pressure area, low area or low is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations. Low-pressure areas are commonly associated with inclement weather (such as cloudy, windy, with possible ...

area which extends over a large part of the Indian Ocean and Central Africa. This low pressure favours gusty winds and

cyclone In meteorology, a cyclone () is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an ant ...

s. The last cyclone was

Cyclone Gafilo Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Gafilo was both the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the South-West Indian Ocean and the most intense tropical cyclone worldwide in 2004. Being unusually large and intense, Gafilo was the deadliest a ...

, which passed close to the Comoros on 5 March 2004 causing great material damage. During the hot and humid season it can rain as much as in twenty-four hours. The dry season is calmer. The low pressure moves towards the continent of Asia (this is the monsoon, the wind blowing from the south-east) and an

anticyclone An anticyclone is a weather phenomenon defined as a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from abov ...

forms below the Comoros. This still does not prevent the islands from having a few gusts of wind, but their intensity is a lot less than during the hot season. The two winds that bring the two different seasons are called the Kashkasi (in November) and the Kusi.

Terrestrial ecology

Partly as a result of international pressure during the 1990s, the government of the Union has begun to take greater care of the environment. Measures have been taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to check the destruction of the environment, especially on Anjouan, which is densely populated. More precisely, in order to minimize the felling of trees for fuel, kerosene has been subsidized, and efforts are underway to replace the lost forest cover caused by the distillation of Ylang-ylang for perfume. The Fund for the Support of Community Development, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a subsidiary of the World Bank) and the Comorian government, is applying itself to improving the water supply on the islands.

Flora

Like most islands, the diversity of the local flora suffers from two pressures, on the one hand the reduction of available space caused by humans settling in what used to be the wildest areas, and the invasion of exotic plant species such as guava trees. Much of the remaining habitat is not protected, and the islands' growing population puts more pressure on the remaining wild lands.

Fauna

The islands are home to eight species of native terrestrial mammal – three species of fruit bat, three insectivorous bat species, and two lemur species. Two bat species,

Livingstone's fruit bat Livingstone's fruit bat (''Pteropus livingstonii''), also called the Comoro flying fox, is a megabat in the genus ''Pteropus''. It is an Old World fruit bat found only in the Anjouan and Mohéli islands in the Union of the Comoros in the western ...

(''Pteropus livingstonii'') and the

Comoro rousette The Comoro rousette (''Rousettus obliviosus'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae endemic to the Comoros Islands. Its natural habitats are subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to ...

(''Rousettus obliviosus''), are endemic. Livingstone's fruit bat, discovered by David Livingstone in 1863, was previously abundant, but has now been reduced to a population of about 1200 specimens restricted to Anjouan and Moheli. A British preservation group sent an expedition to the Comoros in 1992, with the object of transporting some specimens to Great Britain, in order to form a reproducing colony. Native lemurs include the

mongoose lemur The mongoose lemur (''Eulemur mongoz'') is a small primate in the family Lemuridae, native to Madagascar and introduced to the Comoros Islands. These arboreal animals have pointed faces, long, bushy tails, dark-brown upper parts, pale bellies, a ...

(''Eulemur mongoz'') and the

common brown lemur The common brown lemur (''Eulemur fulvus'') is a species of lemur in the family Lemuridae. It is found in Madagascar and has been introduced to Mayotte. Taxonomy Five additional currently recognized species of lemur were until 2001 considered s ...

(''Eulemur fulvus''). The common brown lemur or maki, known as ''Kima'' in Shikomori, is present on Mayotte, where it is believed to have been introduced from Madagascar. It is protected by French law and by local tradition. Mammals introduced to the islands by humans include the

Javan mongoose The Javan mongoose (''Urva javanica'') is a mongoose species native to Southeast Asia. Taxonomy ''Ichneumon javanicus'' was the scientific name proposed by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1818. It was later classified in the genus ''Herpestes' ...

(''Urva javanica'') and tailless tenrec (''Tenrec ecaudatus''). Twenty-two species of birds are endemic to the archipelago. Endemic species include the Karthala scops-owl (''Otus pauliani''), Anjouan scops-owl (''Otus capnodes'') and

Humblot's flycatcher Humblot's flycatcher (''Humblotia flavirostris'') or the Grand Comoro flycatcher, is a small passerine bird belonging to the Old World flycatcher family. It is the only member of its genus. Humblot's flycatcher is endemic to the island of Gran ...

(''Humblotia flavirostris''). Native invertebrates include ''

Scolopendra ''Scolopendra'' (through Latin from Greek , ''skolopendra'') is a species-rich genus of large tropical centipedes of the family Scolopendridae. Description The genus ''Scolopendra'' contains many species of centipedes found across the world' ...

'', venomous centipedes that can reach up to 25 centimetres long. No large African animals (

elephant Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae a ...

giraffe The giraffe is a large African hoofed mammal belonging to the genus ''Giraffa''. It is the tallest living terrestrial animal and the largest ruminant on Earth. Traditionally, giraffes were thought to be one species, ''Giraffa camelopardalis ...

s, lions,

crocodile Crocodiles (family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term crocodile is sometimes used even more loosely to include all extant mem ...

zebra Zebras (, ) (subgenus ''Hippotigris'') are African equines with distinctive black-and-white striped coats. There are three living species: the Grévy's zebra (''Equus grevyi''), plains zebra (''E. quagga''), and the mountain zebra (''E. z ...

s or

antelope The term antelope is used to refer to many species of even-toed ruminant that are indigenous to various regions in Africa and Eurasia. Antelope comprise a wastebasket taxon defined as any of numerous Old World grazing and browsing hoofed mammal ...

s) are found on the Comoros, despite the islands being relatively close to the mainland.

Freshwater ecology

Freshwater habitats on the islands include streams originating in the islands' forested highlands and flowing into the sea, as well as crater lakes. These habitats are home to species of freshwater and brackish water fish, frogs, waterbirds, dragonflies, and caddisflies."Comoros - Mayotte". Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (FEOW). Accessed 10 August 2021

/ref> Mayotte and Moheli have

perennial stream A perennial stream is a stream that has continuous flow of surface water throughout the year in at least parts of its catchment during seasons of normal rainfall, Water Supply Paper 494. as opposed to one whose flow is intermittent. In the abs ...

s and lakes. Mayotte is the oldest of the islands, and has many meandering streams which descend from mountain forests, as well as two lakes – Dziani Karehani and Dziani Dzaha. Mohéli also has freshwater streams, and the freshwater but sulfurous lake Dziani Boundouni. Grande Comore, the largest and youngest island, is volcanically active and has thin and rocky soils, with no perennial streams or large stream valleys. Anjouan also has few permanent freshwater habitats. All of the freshwater fishes on the Comoros are from secondary families, i.e. families of fishes which can tolerate salt water. No primary families – fish families adapted to freshwater and intolerant of salt water – are native to the island, on account of the islands' oceanic origin and relatively recent geologic origins.

Marine ecology

Mayotte, the oldest island, is surrounded by a

barrier reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. Co ...

, with extensive reefs and lagoons between the reef and the island. The reef and lagoon cover over 1,000 km². They are home to more than 760 species of marine fish, including 17 threatened species, 581 species of marine

arthropod Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, o ...

s, more than 450 cnidarian species, and 24 marine mammal species."Mayotte (France)". IUCN. Accessed 10 August 2021
/ref> The other Comoro Islands are surrounded by fringing reefs, which form a narrow platform extending a short distance from the coast. Reefs fringe about 60% of the coast of Grande Comore, 80% of Anjouan's coast, and 100% of Mohéli's coast. The Sima Peninsula on Anjouan is surrounded by a vast reef. The islands also have rocky reefs on

basalt Basalt (; ) is an aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron (mafic lava) exposed at or very near the surface of a rocky planet or moon. More than 90% of a ...

substrates."Biodiversity". Comoros Country Profile, Nairobi Convention. Accessed 10 August 2021

/ref> Mayotte has 7.6 km² of seagrass beds.Ewan Trégarot, Pierre Failler & Jean-Philippe Maréchal (2017) Evaluation of coastal and marine ecosystem services of Mayotte: Indirect use values of coral reefs and associated ecosystems, ''International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management'', 13:3, 19-34, DOI: 10.1080/21513732.2017.1407361 The extensive seagrass beds in Moheli Marine Park account for about 90% of the remaining seagrass beds in the Comoros. Other seagrass beds occur at Mitsamiouli, Malé and Ouroveni around Grande Comore and at Bimbini and Ouani around Anjouan. There are eight seagrass species in the Comoros. The islands' seagrass beds have been degraded by sedimentation and climate change. Between 1993 and 1998 the ''

Thalassodendron ciliatum ''Thalassodendron ciliatum'', the sickle-leaved cymodocea, is a species of plant in the '' Thalassodendron'' genus of seagrasses in the family Cymodoceaceae. Distribution ''Thalassodendron ciliatum'' has a wide distribution throughout the Indo-P ...

'' beds at Moheli Marine Park were destroyed by a large sediment influx into the lagoon from upland deforestation coupled with high rainfall. Mayotte has 8.5 km² of mangroves. There are approximately 120 ha of mangroves on the other Comoro islands, 75% of which are on the south coast of Mohéli, particularly around Damou and Mapiachingo. Smaller areas of mangrove are also found on Grande Comore and Anjouan. There are seven mangrove species in the Comoros, with '' Rhizophora mucronata'' and ''

Avicennia marina ''Avicennia marina'', commonly known as grey mangrove or white mangrove, is a species of mangrove tree classified in the plant family Acanthaceae (formerly in the Verbenaceae or Avicenniaceae). As with other mangroves, it occurs in the intert ...

'' the most abundant. Marine mammals in the Comoros' seas include the

humpback whale The humpback whale (''Megaptera novaeangliae'') is a species of baleen whale. It is a rorqual (a member of the family Balaenopteridae) and is the only species in the genus ''Megaptera''. Adults range in length from and weigh up to . The hu ...

(''Megaptera novaeangliae'')

sperm whale The sperm whale or cachalot (''Physeter macrocephalus'') is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus '' Physeter'' and one of three extant species in the sperm whale fami ...

(''Physeter macrocephalus''), dugong (''Dugong dugon'')

spinner dolphin The spinner dolphin (''Stenella longirostris'') is a small dolphin found in off-shore tropical waters around the world. It is famous for its acrobatic displays in which it rotates around its longitudinal axis as it leaps through the air. It is a ...

(''Stenella longirostris''),

pantropical spotted dolphin The pantropical spotted dolphin (''Stenella attenuata'') is a species of dolphin found in all the world's temperate and tropical oceans. The species was beginning to come under threat due to the killing of millions of individuals in tuna purse s ...

(''Stenella attenuata''),

Fraser's dolphin Fraser's dolphin or the Sarawak dolphin (''Lagenodelphis hosei'') is a cetacean in the family Delphinidae found in deep waters in the Pacific Ocean and to a lesser extent in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Taxonomy ''Lagenodelphis hosei'' is sp ...

(''Lagenodelphis hosei''),

bottlenose dolphin Bottlenose dolphins are aquatic mammals in the genus ''Tursiops.'' They are common, cosmopolitan members of the family Delphinidae, the family of oceanic dolphins. Molecular studies show the genus definitively contains two species: the comm ...

(''Tursiops'' sp.), Risso's dolphin (''Grampus griseus''),

melon-headed whale The melon-headed whale (''Peponocephala electra''), also known less commonly as the electra dolphin, little killer whale, or many-toothed blackfish, is a toothed whale of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae). The common name is derived from t ...

(''Peponocephala electra''), short-finned pilot whale (''Globicephala macrorhynchus''),

pygmy killer whale The pygmy killer whale (''Feresa attenuata'') is a poorly known and rarely seen oceanic dolphin. It is the only species in the genus ''Feresa''. It derives its common name from sharing some physical characteristics with the orca also known as t ...

(''Feresa attenuata''),

Blainville's beaked whale Blainville's beaked whale (''Mesoplodon densirostris''), or the dense-beaked whale, is believed to be the widest ranging mesoplodont whale. The French zoologist Henri de Blainville first described the species in 1817 from a small piece of jaw � ...

(''Mesoplodon densirostris''), and

Longman's beaked whale The tropical bottlenose whale (''Indopacetus pacificus''), also known as the Indo-Pacific beaked whale or Longman's beaked whale, was considered to be the world's rarest cetacean until recently, but the spade-toothed whale now holds that position ...

(''Mesoplodon pacificus''). Other marine fauna include the

green sea turtle The green sea turtle (''Chelonia mydas''), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus ''Chelonia''. Its range exten ...

(''Chelonia mydas''), most abundantly on Mohéli and Mayotte where they still come to lay eggs, and the

coelacanth The coelacanths ( ) are fish belonging to the order Actinistia that includes two extant species in the genus ''Latimeria'': the West Indian Ocean coelacanth (''Latimeria chalumnae''), primarily found near the Comoro Islands off the east coast ...

, a deepwater fish known from fossils over 300 million years old.

Marine protected areas

Four marine national parks were established in 2010 – Coelacanth National Park (92.76 km²) along the south shore of Grande Comore, Mitsamiouli Ndroude National Park (23.14 km²) along the north shore of Grande Comore, Mohéli National Park (643.62 km²) around Mohéli, and Shisiwani National Park (64.97 km²) around Anjouan's Sima Peninsula.

Politics

The Comoro Archipelago is divided between: * The

, a sovereign nation formed by the three islands of Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli. * Mayotte, an Overseas Department of the French Republic (''département d'outre-mer''). This island is also claimed by the Union of the Comoros according to Article 1 of its Constitution. The United Nations General Assembly continued to condemn the French presence in Mayotte until 1994. France, however, used its power of veto in the UN to prevent the Security Council from passing a resolution condemning France. The

judged the French presence on Mayotte to be illegal.# ↑ document de l'Union africaine rchive/ref> Mayotte became a French

Department Department may refer to: * Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility Government and military *Department (administrative division), a geographical and administrative division within a country, ...

on 31 March 2011. The Comoros underwent a political crisis that started off in 1997 with the separatism on Anjouan. The political authorities on the island had turned the population of the island against the central government, advocating at first reunification with France, and later a greater autonomy bordering on independence. Since 2006, the Ex-President of the Union of the Comoros,

Ahmed Abdallah Sambi Sayyid Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi ( ar, أحمد عبدالله محمد سامبي, born 5 June 1958) is a Comorian Islamic leader and politician, and former President of Comoros. He is popularly known as 'Ayatollah'. After easily winning the ...

, who is originally from the island of Anjouan, has been in open conflict with the authorities of Anjouan, a conflict which ended in a military landing of the National Army of Development in order to re-establish the authority of the Union on the island.

Geography

History

Geology

Climate

Terrestrial ecology

Flora

Fauna

Freshwater ecology

Marine ecology

Marine protected areas

Politics

See also

References

Further reading

Geology