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(; ; ) was an early form of professional
theatre Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perfor ...
, originating from
Italian theatre The theatre of Italy originates from the Middle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of the ancient Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, in Southern Italy, the theatre of the Italic peoples and the theatre of ancient Rome. It ca ...
, that was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was formerly called Italian comedy in English and is also known as , , and . Characterized by masked "types", was responsible for the rise of actresses such as
Isabella Andreini Isabella Andreini (born Isabella Canali, 156210 June 1604), also known as Isabella Da Padova, was an Italian actress and writer. Andreini was a member of the Compagnia dei Comici Gelosi, a touring theatre company that performed in Italy and Fr ...
and improvised performances based on sketches or scenarios. A , such as ''The Tooth Puller'', is both scripted and improvised. Characters' entrances and exits are scripted. A special characteristic of is the , a joke or "something foolish or witty", usually well known to the performers and to some extent a scripted routine. Another characteristic of is
pantomime Pantomime (; informally panto) is a type of musical comedy stage production designed for family entertainment. It was developed in England and is performed throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland and (to a lesser extent) in other English-speakin ...
, which is mostly used by the character Arlecchino, now better known as
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
. The characters of the usually represent fixed social types and
stock character A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a fictional character in a work of art such as a novel, play, or a film whom audiences recognize from frequent recurrences in a particular literary tradition. There is a wide range of s ...
s, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false
bravado Bravado may refer to: * ''The Bravados'', a 1958 western film * ''Bravado'' (EP), 2008 debut extended play by Australian electronic band Miami Horror * ''Bravado'' (Kirin J. Callinan album), 2017 * "Bravado" (song), 2013 song by Lorde * "Bravad ...
. The characters are exaggerated "real characters", such as a know-it-all doctor called Il Dottore, a greedy old man called Pantalone, or a perfect relationship like the ''
Innamorati ''Gli Innamorati'' (, meaning "The Lovers") were stock characters within the theatre style known as commedia dell'arte, who appeared in 16th century Italy. In the plays, everything revolved around the Lovers in some regard. These dramatic and pos ...
''. Many troupes were formed to perform , including
I Gelosi I Gelosi (; "the Zealous Ones") was an Italian acting troupe that performed commedia dell'arte from 1569 to 1604. Their name stems form their motto: , long thought to mean "Virtue, fame and honour made us jealous", or "We are jealous of attaining ...
(which had actors such as Andreini and her husband Francesco Andreini), Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe. was often performed outside on platforms or in popular areas such as a (
town square A town square (or square, plaza, public square, city square, urban square, or ''piazza'') is an open public space, commonly found in the heart of a traditional town but not necessarily a true square, geometric square, used for community gathe ...
). The form of theatre originated in Italy, but travelled throughout Europe - sometimes to as far away as Moscow. The genesis of may be related to carnival in
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400  ...
, where the author and actor Andrea Calmo had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the (old man) Pantalone, by 1570. In the
Flaminio Scala Flaminio Scala (27 September 1552 – 9 December 1624), commonly known by his stage name, Flavio,Landolfi 1993. was an Italian stage actor of Commedia dell'Arte, scenario writer, playwright, director, producer, manager, agent, and editor. Consid ...
scenario, for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone into the 17th century. While Calmo's characters (which also included the Spanish Capitano and a type) were not masked, it is uncertain at what point the characters donned the mask. However, the connection to carnival (the period between Epiphany and
Ash Wednesday Ash Wednesday is a holy day of prayer and fasting in many Western Christian denominations. It is preceded by Shrove Tuesday and falls on the first day of Lent (the six weeks of penitence before Easter). It is observed by Catholics in the ...
) would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some point. The tradition in Northern Italy is centred in
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
,
Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and '' comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture. In 2017, it was named as the Eur ...
, and Venice, where the major companies came under the protection of the various dukes. Concomitantly, a
Neapolitan Neapolitan means of or pertaining to Naples, a city in Italy; or to: Geography and history * Province of Naples, a province in the Campania region of southern Italy that includes the city * Duchy of Naples, in existence during the Early and Hig ...
tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure Pulcinella, which has been long associated with Naples and derived into various types elsewhere—most famously as the puppet character Punch (of the eponymous Punch and Judy shows) in England.


History

Although flourished in the
Italian theatre The theatre of Italy originates from the Middle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of the ancient Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, in Southern Italy, the theatre of the Italic peoples and the theatre of ancient Rome. It ca ...
during the Mannerist period, there has been a long-standing tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. While it is possible to detect formal similarities between the and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin. Some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic ( Plautine types) or the Empire (
Atellan Farce The Atellan Farce (Latin: ''Atellanae Fabulae'' or ''Fabulae Atellanae'', "favola atellana"; ''Atellanicum exhodium'', "Atella comedies"), also known as the Oscan Games (Latin: ''ludi Osci'', "Oscan plays"), were masked improvised farces in Ancient ...
s). The
Atellan Farce The Atellan Farce (Latin: ''Atellanae Fabulae'' or ''Fabulae Atellanae'', "favola atellana"; ''Atellanicum exhodium'', "Atella comedies"), also known as the Oscan Games (Latin: ''ludi Osci'', "Oscan plays"), were masked improvised farces in Ancient ...
s of the Roman Empire featured crude "types" wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features and an improvised plot. Some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano. More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, such as Hellequin (as the source of Harlequin, for example). The first recorded performances came from Rome as early as 1551. was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who were costumed and masked, as opposed to , which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors. This view may be somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tasso's '' Aminta'', for example, and much was done at court rather than in the street. By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adopted as their impress (or coat of arms) the two-faced Roman god Janus. Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this travelling troupe and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the "other." The Gelosi performed in Northern Italy and France where they received protection and patronage from the King of France. Despite fluctuations the Gelosi maintained stability for performances with the "usual ten": "two (old men), four (two male and two female lovers), two , a captain and a (serving maid)". often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also as some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the around the start of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimize the form—and ensure its legacy. These scenarios are highly structured and built around the symmetry of the various types in duet: two , , and , etc. In , female roles were played by women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity. Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with
Vincenza Armani Vincenza Armani (c. 1530 in Venice – 11 September 1569), was an Italian actress, singer, poet, musician, lace maker and sculptor. She was one of the most famous Italian actresses of the period and known as the 'Divine Vincenza Armani'. She ...
and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and Europe). In the 1570s, English theatre critics generally denigrated the troupes with their female actors (some decades later,
Ben Jonson Benjamin "Ben" Jonson (c. 11 June 1572 – c. 16 August 1637) was an English playwright and poet. Jonson's artistry exerted a lasting influence upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours; he is best known for t ...
referred to one female performer of the as a "tumbling whore"). By the end of the 1570s, Italian prelates attempted to ban female performers; however, by the end of the 16th century, actresses were standard on the Italian stage. The Italian scholar Ferdinando Taviani has collated a number of church documents opposing the advent of the actress as a kind of courtesan, whose scanty attire and promiscuous lifestyle corrupted young men, or at least infused them with carnal desires. Taviani's term describes this and other practices offensive to the church, while giving us an idea of the phenomenon of the performance. By the early 17th century, the comedies were moving from pure improvisational street performances to specified and clearly delineated acts and characters. Three books written during the 17th century— ''Fruti della moderne commedia'' (1628), Niccolò Barbieri's ''La supplica'' (1634) and Perrucci's ''Dell'arte rapresentativa'' (1699—"made firm recommendations concerning performing practice." Katritzky argues, that as a result, was reduced to formulaic and stylized acting; as far as possible from the purity of the improvisational genesis a century earlier. In France, during the reign of
Louis XIV Louis XIV (Louis Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was List of French monarchs, King of France from 14 May 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the Li ...
, the
Comédie-Italienne Comédie-Italienne or Théâtre-Italien are French names which have been used to refer to Italian-language theatre and opera when performed in France. The earliest recorded visits by Italian players were commedia dell'arte companies employed b ...
created a repertoire and delineated new masks and characters, while deleting some of the Italian precursors, such as Pantalone. French playwrights, particularly
Molière Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (, ; 15 January 1622 (baptised) – 17 February 1673), known by his stage name Molière (, , ), was a French playwright, actor, and poet, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the French language and world ...
, gleaned from the plots and masks in creating an indigenous treatment. Indeed, Molière shared the stage with the Comédie-Italienne at Petit-Bourbon, and some of his forms, e.g. the
tirade Invective (from Middle English ''invectif'', or Old French and Late Latin ''invectus'') is abusive, reproachful, or venomous language used to express blame or censure; or, a form of rude expression or discourse intended to offend or hurt; vitupe ...
, are derivative from the (). moved outside the city limits to the , or fair theatres, in the early 17th century as it evolved toward a more pantomimed style. With the dispatch of the Italian comedians from France in 1697, the form transmogrified in the 18th century as genres such as gained in attraction in France, particularly through the plays of
Marivaux Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux (4 February 1688 – 12 February 1763), commonly referred to as Marivaux, was a French playwright and novelist. He is considered one of the most important French playwrights of the 18th century, writing nume ...
. Marivaux softened the considerably by bringing in true emotion to the stage. Harlequin achieved more prominence during this period. It is possible that this kind of improvised acting was passed down the Italian generations until the 17th century when it was revived as a professional theatrical technique. However, as currently used the term was coined in the mid-18th century. Curiously, was equally if not more popular in France, where it continued its popularity throughout the 17th century (until 1697), and it was in France that developed its established repertoire. evolved into various configurations across Europe, and each country acculturated the form to its liking. For example,
pantomime Pantomime (; informally panto) is a type of musical comedy stage production designed for family entertainment. It was developed in England and is performed throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland and (to a lesser extent) in other English-speakin ...
, which flourished in the 18th century, owes its genesis to the character types of the , particularly
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
. The Punch and Judy puppet shows, popular to this day in England, owe their basis to the Pulcinella mask that emerged in
Neapolitan Neapolitan means of or pertaining to Naples, a city in Italy; or to: Geography and history * Province of Naples, a province in the Campania region of southern Italy that includes the city * Duchy of Naples, in existence during the Early and Hig ...
versions of the form. In Italy, masks and plots found their way into the , and the plots of
Rossini Gioachino Antonio Rossini (29 February 1792 – 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer who gained fame for his 39 operas, although he also wrote many songs, some chamber music and piano pieces, and some sacred music. He set new standards ...
,
Verdi Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi (; 9 or 10 October 1813 – 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer best known for his operas. He was born near Busseto to a provincial family of moderate means, receiving a musical education with the ...
, and Puccini. During the Napoleonic occupation of Italy, instigators of reform and critics of French Imperial rule (such as Giacomo Casanova) used the carnival masks to hide their identities while fueling political agendas, challenging social rule and hurling blatant insults and criticisms at the regime. In 1797, in order to destroy the impromptu style of carnival as a partisan platform, Napoleon outlawed the commedia dell'arte. It was not reborn in Venice until 1979 because of this.


Companies

, or companies, were troupes of actors, each of whom had a specific function or role. Actors were versed in a plethora of skills, with many having joined troupes without a theatre background. Some were doctors, others priests, others soldiers, enticed by the excitement and prevalence of theatre in Italian society. Actors were known to switch from troupe to troupe "on loan," and companies would often collaborate if unified by a single patron or performing in the same general location. Members would also splinter off to form their own troupes, such was the case with the Ganassa and the Gelosi. These travelled throughout Europe from the early period, beginning with the ''Soldati'', then, the '' Ganassa'', who travelled to Spain, and were famous for playing the guitar and singing—never to be heard from again—and the famous troupes of the Golden Age (1580–1605): ''Gelosi'', ''Confidenti'', ''Accessi''. These names which signified daring and enterprise were appropriated from the names of the academies—in a sense, to lend legitimacy. However, each troupe had its (like a coat of arms) which symbolized its nature. The Gelosi, for example, used the two-headed face of the Roman god Janus, to signify its comings and goings and relationship to the season of
Carnival Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival t ...
, which took place in January. Janus also signified the duality of the actor, who is playing a character or mask, while still remaining oneself. Magistrates and clergy were not always receptive to the travelling (companies), particularly during periods of plague, and because of their itinerant nature. Actors, both male and female, were known to strip nearly naked, and storylines typically descended into crude situations with overt sexuality, considered to teach nothing but "lewdness and adultery...of both sexes" by the French Parliament. The term was used in reference to the , and remains a derogatory term to this day ( vagabond). This was in reference to the nomadic nature of the troupes, often instigated by persecution from the Church, civil authorities, and rival theatre organisations that forced the companies to move from place to place. A troupe often consisted of ten performers of familiar masked and unmasked types, and included women. The companies would employ carpenters, props masters, servants, nurses, and prompters, all of whom would travel with the company. They would travel in large carts laden with supplies necessary for their nomadic style of performance, enabling them to move from place to place without having to worry about the difficulties of relocation. This nomadic nature, though influenced by persecution, was also largely due in part to the troupes requiring new (and paying) audiences. They would take advantage of public fairs and celebrations, most often in wealthier towns where financial success was more probable. Companies would also find themselves summoned by high-ranking officials, who would offer patronage in return for performing in their land for a certain amount of time. Companies in fact preferred to not stay in any one place too long, mostly out of a fear of the act becoming "stale." They would move on to the next location while their popularity was still active, ensuring the towns and people were sad to see them leave, and would be more likely to either invite them back or pay to watch performances again should the troupe ever return. Prices were dependent on the troupe's decision, which could vary depending on the wealth of the location, the length of stay, and the regulations governments had in place for dramatic performances.


List of known troupes

* Compagnia dei Fedeli: active 1601–52, with
Giambattista Andreini Giambattista Andreini (9 February 1576 – 7 June 1654) was an Italian actor and the most important Italian playwright of the 17th century. Life Born in Florence to stage stars Isabella Andreini and Francesco Andreini, he had a great success a ...
* Compagnia degli Accesi: active 1590–1628 * : active 1578–1640 * Compagnia dei Confidenti: active 1574–99; reformed under
Flaminio Scala Flaminio Scala (27 September 1552 – 9 December 1624), commonly known by his stage name, Flavio,Landolfi 1993. was an Italian stage actor of Commedia dell'Arte, scenario writer, playwright, director, producer, manager, agent, and editor. Consid ...
, operated again 1611–39 * I Dedosi: active 1581–99 *
I Gelosi I Gelosi (; "the Zealous Ones") was an Italian acting troupe that performed commedia dell'arte from 1569 to 1604. Their name stems form their motto: , long thought to mean "Virtue, fame and honour made us jealous", or "We are jealous of attaining ...
: active 1568–1604 *
Signora Violante Signora Violante (1682–1741) was a rope-dancer, acrobat, commedia dell'arte actor and theatre company manager. Biography Signora Violante was Italian or French, and was active as a performer from 1720. She was married to an Italian, Senor Vio ...
and Her Troupe of Dancers: active 1729–32 *
Zan Ganassa Zan Ganassa (, ; – c. 1584) was the stage name of an early actor-manager of Commedia dell'arte, whose company was one of the first to tour outside Italy.Senelick 1995a, p. 409. Ganassa's real name was probably Alberto NaseliHartnoll 1983, "Ganas ...
: active 1568–1610


Characters

Generally, the actors playing were diverse in background in terms of class and religion, and performed anywhere they could. Castagno posits that the
aesthetic Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed t ...
of exaggeration, distortion, anti-
humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "human ...
(as in the masked types), and excessive borrowing as opposed to originality was typical of all the arts in the late
Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...
. Theatre historian Martin Green points to the extravagance of emotion during the period of 's emergence as the reason for representational moods, or characters, that define the art. In , each character embodies a mood: mockery, sadness, gaiety, confusion, and so forth. According to 18th-century London theatre critic Baretti, incorporates specific roles and characters that were "originally intended as a kind of characteristic representative of some particular Italian district or town." (archetypes) The character's persona included the specific dialect of the region or town represented. Meaning that on stage, each character was performed in its own dialect. Characters would often be passed down from generation to generation, and characters married onstage were often married in real life as well, seen most famously with Francesco and Isabella Andreini. This was believed to make performances more natural, as well as strengthening the bonds within the troupe, who emphasized complete unity between every member. Additionally, each character has a singular
costume Costume is the distinctive style of dress or cosmetic of an individual or group that reflects class, gender, profession, ethnicity, nationality, activity or epoch. In short costume is a cultural visual of the people. The term also was tradition ...
and mask that is representative of the character's role. has four stock character groups: # : servants, clowns; characters such as
Arlecchino Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the ''zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian ''commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditionally ...
(also known as
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
),
Brighella Brighella (in Bergamasque dialect: ''Brighèla'') is a comic, masked character from the Italian theatre style Commedia dell'arte. His early costume consisted of loosely fitting, white smock and pants with green trim and was often equipped with a ...
,
Scapino Scapino, or Scapin, is a zanni character from the commedia dell'arte. His name is related to the Italian word "scappare" (to escape) and his name translates to “little escape artist” in reference to his tendency to flee from fights, even those ...
, Pulcinella and
Pedrolino Pedrolino is a ''primo zanni'', or comic servant, of the ''Commedia dell'Arte''; the name is a hypocorism of ''Pedro'' (Peter), via the suffix ''-lino''. The character made its first appearance in the last quarter of the 16th century, apparently ...
# : wealthy old men, masters; characters such as Pantalone and Il Dottore # : young upper class lovers; who would have names such as Flavio and Isabella # : self-styled captains, braggarts; can also be La Signora if a female Masked characters are often referred to as "masks" (in Italian: ), which, according to John Rudlin, cannot be separated from the character. In other words, the characteristics of the character and the characteristics of the mask are the same. In time however, the word came to refer to all of the characters of the whether masked or not. Female characters (including female servants) are most often not masked (female are never masked). The female character in the masters group is called Prima Donna and can be one of the lovers. There is also a female character known as The Courtisane who can also have a servant. Female servants wore bonnets. Their character was played with a malicious wit or gossipy gaiety. The are often children of a male character in the masters group, but not of any female character in the masters group, which may represent younger women who have e.g. married an old man, or a high-class courtesan. Female characters in the masters group, while younger than their male counterparts, are nevertheless older than the . Some of the better known characters are
Pierrot Pierrot ( , , ) is a stock character of pantomime and '' commedia dell'arte'', whose origins are in the late seventeenth-century Italian troupe of players performing in Paris and known as the Comédie-Italienne. The name is a diminutive of ''Pi ...
and Pierrette, Pantalone, Gianduja, Il Dottore,
Brighella Brighella (in Bergamasque dialect: ''Brighèla'') is a comic, masked character from the Italian theatre style Commedia dell'arte. His early costume consisted of loosely fitting, white smock and pants with green trim and was often equipped with a ...
,
Il Capitano Il Capitano (, Italian for "The Captain") is one of the four stock characters of ''Commedia dell'arte.'' He most likely was never a "Captain" but rather appropriated the name for himself. He is often a braggart and a swaggerer who can maint ...
,
Colombina Columbina (in Italian Colombina, meaning "little dove"; in French and English Colombine) is a stock character in the ''commedia dell'arte''. She is Harlequin's mistress, a comic servant playing the tricky slave type, and wife of Pierrot. Rudli ...
, the ,
Pedrolino Pedrolino is a ''primo zanni'', or comic servant, of the ''Commedia dell'Arte''; the name is a hypocorism of ''Pedro'' (Peter), via the suffix ''-lino''. The character made its first appearance in the last quarter of the 16th century, apparently ...
, Pulcinella,
Arlecchino Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the ''zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian ''commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditionally ...
, Sandrone,
Scaramuccia Scaramouche () or Scaramouch (; from Italian Scaramuccia , literally "little skirmisher") is a stock clown character of the 16th-century commedia dell'arte (comic theatrical arts of Italian literature). The role combined characteristics of the ...
(also known as Scaramouche), La Signora, and
Tartaglia Tartaglia may refer to: *Tartaglia (commedia dell'arte), Commedia dell'arte stock character *Angelo Tartaglia (1350 or 1370–1421), Italian condottiero * Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (1499/1500–1557), Venetian mathematician and engineer *Ivo Tarta ...
. In the 17th century as became popular in France, the characters of Pierrot, Columbina and Harlequin were refined and became essentially Parisian, according to Green.


Costumes

Each character in has a distinct costume that helps the audience understand who the character is. Arlecchino originally wore a tight fitting long jacket with matching trousers that both had numerous odd shaped patches, usually green, yellow, red, and brown. Usually, there was a bat and a wallet that would hang from his belt. His hat, which was a soft cap, was modeled after Charles IX or after Henri II, and almost always had a tail of a rabbit, hare or a fox with the occasional tuft of feathers. During the 17th century, the patches turned into blue, red, and green triangles arranged in a symmetrical pattern. The 18th century is when the iconic Arlecchino look with the diamond shaped lozenges took shape. The jacket became shorter and his hat changed from a soft cap to a double pointed hat. Il Dottore's costume was a play on the academic dress of the Bolognese scholars. Il Dottore is almost always clothed entirely in black. He wore a long black gown or jacket that went below the knees. Over the gown, he would have a long black robe that went down to his heels, and he would have on black shoes, stockings, and breeches. In 1653, his costume was changed by Augustin Lolli who was a very popular Il Dottore actor. He added an enormous black hat, changed the robe to a jacket cut similarly to Louis XIV, and added a flat ruff to the neck. Il Capitano's costume is similar to Il Dottore's in the fact that it is also a satire on military wear of the time. This costume would therefore change depending on where the Capitano character is from, and the period the Capitano is from. Pantalone has one of the most iconic costumes of . Typically, he would wear a tight-fitting jacket with a matching pair of trousers. He usually pairs these two with a big black coat called a . Women, who usually played servants or lovers, wore less stylized costumes than the men in . The lovers, , would wear what was considered to be the fashion of the time period. They would only wear plain half-masks with no character distinction or street makeup.


Subjects

Conventional plot lines were written on themes of sex,
jealousy Jealousy generally refers to the thoughts or feelings of insecurity, fear, and concern over a relative lack of possessions or safety. Jealousy can consist of one or more emotions such as anger, resentment, inadequacy, helplessness or disgus ...
,
love Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest Interpersonal relationship, interpersonal affection, to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of ...
, and
old age Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms for people at this age include old people, the elderly (worldwide usage), OAPs (British usa ...
. Many of the basic plot elements can be traced back to the Roman comedies of
Plautus Titus Maccius Plautus (; c. 254 – 184 BC), commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the g ...
and
Terence Publius Terentius Afer (; – ), better known in English as Terence (), was a Roman African playwright during the Roman Republic. His comedies were performed for the first time around 166–160 BC. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator, brought ...
, some of which were themselves translations of lost Greek comedies of the 4th century BC. However, it is more probable that the used contemporary novella, or, traditional sources as well, and drew from current events and local news of the day. Not all were comic, there were some mixed forms and even tragedies. Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'' is drawn from a popular scenario in the Scala collection, his Polonius (''Hamlet'') is drawn from Pantalone, and his clowns bear homage to the . performed written comedies at court. Song and dance were widely used, and a number of were skilled madrigalists, a song form that uses chromatics and close
harmonies In music, harmony is the process by which individual sounds are joined together or composed into whole units or compositions. Often, the term harmony refers to simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches ( tones, notes), or chords. Howev ...
. Audiences came to see the performers, with plotlines becoming secondary to the performance. Among the great ,
Isabella Andreini Isabella Andreini (born Isabella Canali, 156210 June 1604), also known as Isabella Da Padova, was an Italian actress and writer. Andreini was a member of the Compagnia dei Comici Gelosi, a touring theatre company that performed in Italy and Fr ...
was perhaps the most widely known, and a medallion dedicated to her reads "eternal fame". Tristano Martinelli achieved international fame as the first of the great Arlecchinos, and was honoured by the
Medici The House of Medici ( , ) was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici, in the Republic of Florence during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the Mu ...
and the Queen of France. Performers made use of well-rehearsed jokes and stock physical gags, known as and , as well as on-the-spot improvised and interpolated episodes and routines, called (singular , Italian for 'joke'), usually involving a practical joke. Since the productions were improvised, dialogue and action could easily be changed to satirize local scandals, current events, or regional tastes, while still using old jokes and punchlines. Characters were identified by costumes, masks, and
props A prop, formally known as (theatrical) property, is an object used on stage or screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinc ...
, such as a type of baton known as a
slapstick Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. Slapstick may involve both intentional violence and violence by mishap, often resulting from inept use of props such ...
. These characters included the forebears of the modern
clown A clown is a person who performs comedy and arts in a state of open-mindedness using physical comedy, typically while wearing distinct makeup or costuming and reversing folkway-norms. History The most ancient clowns have been found in ...
, namely
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
() and the
zanni Zanni (), Zani or Zane is a character type of commedia dell'arte best known as an astute servant and a trickster. The Zanni comes from the countryside and is known to be a "dispossessed immigrant worker".Rudlin, John. ''Commedia dell'arte: An Act ...
. Harlequin, in particular, was allowed to comment on current events in his entertainment. The classic, traditional plot is that the are in love and wish to be married, but one elder () or several elders () are preventing this from happening, leading the lovers to ask one or more (eccentric servants) for help. Typically the story ends happily, with the marriage of the and forgiveness for any wrongdoings. There are countless variations on this story, as well as many that diverge wholly from the structure, such as a well-known story about Arlecchino becoming mysteriously pregnant, or the Punch and Judy scenario. While generally personally unscripted, the performances often were based on scenarios that gave some semblance of a plot to the largely improvised format. The
Flaminio Scala Flaminio Scala (27 September 1552 – 9 December 1624), commonly known by his stage name, Flavio,Landolfi 1993. was an Italian stage actor of Commedia dell'Arte, scenario writer, playwright, director, producer, manager, agent, and editor. Consid ...
scenarios, published in the early 17th century, are the most widely known collection and representative of its most esteemed ,
I Gelosi I Gelosi (; "the Zealous Ones") was an Italian acting troupe that performed commedia dell'arte from 1569 to 1604. Their name stems form their motto: , long thought to mean "Virtue, fame and honour made us jealous", or "We are jealous of attaining ...
.


Influence in visual art

The iconography of the represents an entire field of study that has been examined by scholars such as Erenstein, Castagno, Katritzky, Molinari, and others. In the early period, representative works by painters at
Fontainebleau Fontainebleau (; ) is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located south-southeast of the centre of Paris. Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the ''arrondissemen ...
were notable for their erotic depictions of the thinly veiled , or the bare-breasted courtesan/actress. The Flemish influence is widely documented as figures entered the world of the genre, depicting the dangers of lust, drinking, and the hedonistic lifestyle. Castagno describes the Flemish (wandering painters) who assimilated themselves within Italian workshops and even assumed Italian surnames: one of the most influential painters, Lodewyk Toeput, for example, became Ludovico Pozzoserrato and was a celebrated painter in the Veneto region of Italy. The can be attributed with establishing as a genre of painting that would persist for centuries. While the iconography gives evidence of the performance style (see Fossard collection), it is important to note that many of the images and engravings were not depictions from real life, but concocted in the studio. The Callot etchings of the Balli di Sfessania (1611) are most widely considered rather than actual depictions of a dance form, or typical masks. While these are often reproduced in large formats, it is important to note that the actual prints measured about 2×3 inches. In the 18th century, Watteau's painting of figures intermingling with the aristocracy were often set in sumptuous garden or pastoral settings and were representative of that genre.
Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso (25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist and Scenic design, theatre designer who spent most of his adult life in France. One of the most influential artists of the 20th ce ...
's 1921 painting ''
Three Musicians ''Three Musicians'' is the title of two similar collage and oil paintings by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. They were both completed in 1921 in Fontainebleau near Paris, France, and exemplify the Synthetic Cubist style; the flat planes of color ...
'' is a colorful representation of -inspired characters. Picasso also designed the original costumes for
Stravinsky Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky (6 April 1971) was a Russian composer, pianist and conductor, later of French (from 1934) and American (from 1945) citizenship. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential 20th-century clas ...
's ''
Pulcinella Pulcinella (; nap, Pulecenella) is a classical character that originated in of the 17th century and became a stock character in Neapolitan puppetry. Pulcinella's versatility in status and attitude has captivated audiences worldwide and kept t ...
'' (1920), a ballet depicting characters and situations. iconography is evident in porcelain figurines many selling for thousands of dollars at auction.


Influence in performance art

The expressive theatre influenced
Molière Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (, ; 15 January 1622 (baptised) – 17 February 1673), known by his stage name Molière (, , ), was a French playwright, actor, and poet, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the French language and world ...
's comedy and subsequently , thus lending a fresh range of expression and choreographic means. An example of a character in literature is the
Pied Piper of Hamelin The Pied Piper of Hamelin (german: der Rattenfänger von Hameln, also known as the Pan Piper or the Rat-Catcher of Hamelin) is the title character of a legend from the town of Hamelin (Hameln), Lower Saxony, Germany. The legend dates back to ...
who is dressed as
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
. Music and dance were central to performance, and most performances had both instrumental and vocal music in them. Brighella was often depicted with a guitar, and many images of the feature singing or dancing figures. In fact, it was considered part of the function to be able to sing and have the popular repertoire under their belt. Accounts of the early , as far back as Calmo in the 1570s and the of Venice, note the ability of to sing precisely and beautifully. The probably accompanied the troupes and may have been in addition to the general cast of characters. For examples of strange instruments of various grotesque formations, see articles by Tom Heck, who has documented this area. The works of a number of playwrights have featured characters influenced by the and sometimes directly drawn from it. Prominent examples include '' The Tempest'' by
William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
, '' Les Fourberies de Scapin'' by
Molière Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (, ; 15 January 1622 (baptised) – 17 February 1673), known by his stage name Molière (, , ), was a French playwright, actor, and poet, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the French language and world ...
, ''
Servant of Two Masters A domestic worker or domestic servant is a person who works within the scope of a residence. The term "domestic service" applies to the equivalent occupational category. In traditional English contexts, such a person was said to be "in service ...
'' (1743) by Carlo Goldoni, the ''Figaro'' plays of
Pierre Beaumarchais Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais (; 24 January 1732 – 18 May 1799) was a French polymath. At various times in his life, he was a watchmaker, inventor, playwright, musician, diplomat, spy, publisher, horticulturist, arms dealer, satirist, ...
, and especially ''
Love for Three Oranges ''The Love for Three Oranges'', Op. 33, also known by its French language title ' (russian: Любовь к трём апельсинам, links=no, ''Lyubov' k tryom apel'sinam''), is a satirical opera by Sergei Prokofiev. Its French libretto w ...
'', ''
Turandot ''Turandot'' (; see below) is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini, posthumously completed by Franco Alfano in 1926, and set to a libretto in Italian by Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni. ''Turandot'' best-known aria is " Nessun dorma", ...
'' and other by
Carlo Gozzi __NOTOC__ Carlo, Count Gozzi (; 13 December 1720 – 4 April 1806) was an Italian ( Venetian) playwright and champion of Commedia dell'arte. Early life Gozzi was born and died in Venice; he came from a family of minor Venetian aristocracy, the T ...
. Influences appear in the lodgers in
Steven Berkoff Steven Berkoff (born Leslie Steven Berks; 3 August 1937) is an English actor, author, playwright, theatre practitioner and theatre director. As a theatre maker he is recognised for staging work with a heightened performance style eponymously ...
's adaptation of
Franz Kafka Franz Kafka (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic. It typ ...
's ''
The Metamorphosis ''Metamorphosis'' (german: Die Verwandlung) is a novella written by Franz Kafka which was first published in 1915. One of Kafka's best-known works, ''Metamorphosis'' tells the story of salesman Gregor Samsa, who wakes one morning to find himsel ...
''. Through their association with spoken theatre and playwrights figures have provided opera with many of its stock characters.
Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 17565 December 1791), baptised as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition r ...
's ''
Don Giovanni ''Don Giovanni'' (; Köchel catalogue, K. 527; Vienna (1788) title: , literally ''The rake (stock character), Rake Punished, or Don Giovanni'') is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to an Italian libretto by Lorenzo Da Pon ...
'' sets a puppet show story and comic servants like Leporello and Figaro have precedents. Soubrette characters like Susanna in ''
Le nozze di Figaro ''The Marriage of Figaro'' ( it, Le nozze di Figaro, links=no, ), K. 492, is a ''commedia per musica'' (opera buffa) in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premie ...
'', Zerlina in ''
Don Giovanni ''Don Giovanni'' (; Köchel catalogue, K. 527; Vienna (1788) title: , literally ''The rake (stock character), Rake Punished, or Don Giovanni'') is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to an Italian libretto by Lorenzo Da Pon ...
'' and Despina in ''
Così fan tutte (''All Women Do It, or The School for Lovers''), K. 588, is an opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna, Austria. The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte ...
'' recall Columbina and related characters. The comic operas of
Gaetano Donizetti Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (29 November 1797 – 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer, best known for his almost 70 operas. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, he was a leading composer of the '' bel canto'' opera style ...
, such as '' Elisir d'amore'', draw readily upon stock types. Leoncavallo's tragic melodrama ''
Pagliacci ''Pagliacci'' (; literal translation, "Clowns") is an Italian opera in a prologue and two acts, with music and libretto by Ruggero Leoncavallo. The opera tells the tale of Canio, actor and leader of a commedia dell'arte theatrical company, who ...
'' depicts a company in which the performers find their life situations reflecting events they depict on stage. characters also figure in
Richard Strauss Richard Georg Strauss (; 11 June 1864 – 8 September 1949) was a German composer, conductor, pianist, and violinist. Considered a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras, he has been described as a successor of Richard Wag ...
's opera ''
Ariadne auf Naxos (''Ariadne on Naxos''), Op. 60, is a 1912 opera by Richard Strauss with a German libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal. The opera's unusual combination of elements of low commedia dell'arte with those of high opera seria points up one of the work's ...
''. The piano piece
Carnaval Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival ty ...
by
Robert Schumann Robert Schumann (; 8 June 181029 July 1856) was a German composer, pianist, and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era. Schumann left the study of law, intending to pursue a career a ...
was conceived as a kind of masked ball that combined characters from with real world characters, such as Chopin, Paganini, and
Clara Schumann Clara Josephine Schumann (; née Wieck; 13 September 1819 – 20 May 1896) was a German pianist, composer, and piano teacher. Regarded as one of the most distinguished pianists of the Romantic era, she exerted her influence over the course of a ...
, as well as characters from the composer's inner world. Movements of the piece reflect the names of many characters of the , including
Pierrot Pierrot ( , , ) is a stock character of pantomime and '' commedia dell'arte'', whose origins are in the late seventeenth-century Italian troupe of players performing in Paris and known as the Comédie-Italienne. The name is a diminutive of ''Pi ...
,
Harlequin Harlequin (; it, Arlecchino ; lmo, Arlechin, Bergamasque pronunciation ) is the best-known of the '' zanni'' or comic servant characters from the Italian '' commedia dell'arte'', associated with the city of Bergamo. The role is traditional ...
,
Pantalon The pantalon (or pantaleon) was a very large type of hammered dulcimer, invented by Pantaleon Hebenstreit in the early 18th century and briefly popular in France and Germany. Description The pantalon was a very large dulcimer with a double sound ...
, and Columbine. Stock characters and situations also appear in ballet.
Igor Stravinsky Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky (6 April 1971) was a Russian composer, pianist and conductor, later of French (from 1934) and American (from 1945) citizenship. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential 20th-century clas ...
's ''
Petrushka Petrushka ( rus, Петру́шка, p=pʲɪtˈruʂkə, a=Ru-петрушка.ogg) is a stock character of Russian folk puppetry. Italian puppeteers introduced it in the first third of the 19th century. While most core characters came from Italy ...
'' and ''
Pulcinella Pulcinella (; nap, Pulecenella) is a classical character that originated in of the 17th century and became a stock character in Neapolitan puppetry. Pulcinella's versatility in status and attitude has captivated audiences worldwide and kept t ...
'' allude directly to the tradition. is performed seasonally in Denmark on the Peacock Stage of
Tivoli Gardens Tivoli Gardens, also known simply as Tivoli, is an amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the third-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Kla ...
in Copenhagen, and north of Copenhagen at Dyrehavsbakken. Tivoli has regular performances, while Bakken has daily performances for children by Pierrot and a puppet version of Pulcinella resembling Punch and Judy. The characters created and portrayed by English comedian
Sacha Baron Cohen Sacha Noam Baron Cohen (born 13 October 1971) is an English actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter. He is best known for his creation and portrayal of the fictional satirical characters Ali G, Borat Sagdiyev, Brüno Gehard, and Admiral ...
(most famously
Ali G Alistair Leslie Graham, better known as Ali G, is a satirical fictional character created and performed by English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen. A faux-streetwise poseur from Staines, Ali G speaks in rude boy-style Multicultural London English a ...
,
Borat ''Borat! Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan'' ( Kazakh / Russian: ''Борат'') (also stylized as ''BORДT'', or simply ''Borat'') is a 2006 mockumentary black comedy film directed by Larry Charle ...
, and
Bruno Bruno may refer to: People and fictional characters *Bruno (name), including lists of people and fictional characters with either the given name or surname * Bruno, Duke of Saxony (died 880) * Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne, ...
) have been discussed in relation to their potential origins in , as Baron Cohen was trained by French master clown
Philippe Gaulier Philippe Gaulier (born in Paris, 4 March 1943) is a French master clown, pedagogue, and professor of theatre. He is the founder of École Philippe Gaulier, a prestigious French theatre school in Étampes, outside Paris. He studied under Jacques Lec ...
, whose other students have gone on to become teachers and performers of .


See also

* *


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * Rudlin, John
''Commedia dell'arte: An Actor's Handbook''
Ebook Corporation. * *


Further reading

* Aguirre, Mariano 'Qué es la Commedia dell'arte' (Spanish

* * Callery, Dymphna
''Through the Body: A Practical Guide to Physical Theatre''
London: Nickalis Hernt Books (2001). * (1628) ''Frutti delle moderne comedie et avvisi a chi le recita'', Padua: Guareschi * Perrucci, Andrea (1699) ''Dell'arte rappresentativa premeditata, ed all'improviso'' * Flaminio Scala, Scala, Flaminio (1611) ''Il Teatro Delle Favole Rappresentative''
online pdf
available at
Bavarian State Library The Bavarian State Library (german: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, abbreviated BSB, called ''Bibliotheca Regia Monacensis'' before 1919) in Munich is the central " Landesbibliothek", i. e. the state library of the Free State of Bavaria, the big ...
website). Translated into English by Henry F. Salerno in 1967 as ''Scenarios of the Commedia dell'arte''. New Italian edition cured by F.Mariotti (1976). New partial translation (30 scenarios out of 50) by Richard Andrews (2008) ''The Commedia dell'arte of Flaminio Scala, A Translation and Analysis of Scenarios'' Published by: Scarecrow Press. * Darius, Adam. ''The Commedia dell'arte'' (1996) Kolesnik Production OY, Helsinki. * DelPiano, Roberto
La Commedia dell'arte
' 2007. Retrieved 2009-07-09. * Grantham, Barry ''Playing Commedia'', Nick Hern Books, London, 2000. * Grantham, Barry ''Commedia Plays: Scenarios – Scripts – Lazzi'', Nick Hern Books, London, 2006. * * * Puppa, Paolo ''A History of Italian Theatre''. Eds. Joseph Farrell. Cambridge University Press. 2006. * * * Taviani, Ferdinando and Marotti, Ferruccio, and Romei, Giovanna. ''La Commedia dell'arte e la societa barocca'' M. Bulzoni, Roma : 1969 * Taviani, Ferdinando and M. Schino (1982) ''Il segreto della commedia dell'arte''. * Tessari, R. (1969) ''La commedia dell'arte nel seicento * Tessari, R. (1981) ''Commedia dell'arte: la maschera e l'ombra'' * Tony, Kishawi ''Teaching Commedia dell'arte'' (2010) A step by step handbook for the theatre ensemble and Drama teacher


Simply Masquerade
– types of masks used


External links


commedia-dell-arte.com
– Judith Chaffee's Commedia website, with resources, annotated bibliography, and links * Meagher, Jennifer (2007

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
, July 2007 * Bellinger, Martha Fletcher (2002
"The Commedia dell'arte"
''A Short History of the Drama'' (1927) * Wilson, Matthew R. (2010
A History of Commedia dell'Arte
{{DEFAULTSORT:Commedia Dell'arte History of theatre