In mathematics, a
subset
In mathematics, set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset o ...
of a given
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
is closed under an
operation of the larger set if performing that operation on members of the subset always produces a member of that subset. For example, the
natural number
In mathematics, the natural numbers are those numbers used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the country").
Numbers used for counting are called ''cardinal n ...
s are closed under addition, but not under subtraction: is not a natural number, although both 1 and 2 are.
Similarly, a subset is said to be closed under a ''collection'' of operations if it is closed under each of the operations individually.
The closure of a subset is the result of a
closure operator In mathematics, a closure operator on a set ''S'' is a function \operatorname: \mathcal(S)\rightarrow \mathcal(S) from the power set of ''S'' to itself that satisfies the following conditions for all sets X,Y\subseteq S
:
Closure operators are de ...
applied to the subset. The ''closure'' of a subset under some operations is the smallest subset that is closed under these operations. It is often called the ''span'' (for example
linear span
In mathematics, the linear span (also called the linear hull or just span) of a set of vectors (from a vector space), denoted , pp. 29-30, §§ 2.5, 2.8 is defined as the set of all linear combinations of the vectors in . It can be characterized ...
) or the ''generated set''.
Definitions
Let be a
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
equipped with one or several methods for producing elements of from other elements of .
[ Operations and ( partial) multivariate function are examples of such methods. If is a ]topological space
In mathematics, a topological space is, roughly speaking, a geometrical space in which closeness is defined but cannot necessarily be measured by a numeric distance. More specifically, a topological space is a set whose elements are called point ...
, the limit of a sequence
As the positive integer n becomes larger and larger, the value n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1\right) becomes arbitrarily close to 1. We say that "the limit of the sequence n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1\right) equals 1."
In mathematics, the limit ...
of elements of is an example, where there are an infinity of input elements and the result is not always defined. If is a field the roots in of a polynomial
In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of indeterminates (also called variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and positive-integer powers of variables. An exam ...
with coefficients in is another example where the result may be not unique.
A subset of is said to be ''closed'' under these methods, if, when all input elements are in , then all possible results are also in . Sometimes, one say also that has the .
The main property of closed sets, which results immediately from the definition, is that every
intersection of closed sets is a closed set. It follows that for every subset of , there is a smallest closed subset of such that
(it is the intersection of all closed subsets that contain ). Depending on the context, is called the ''closure'' of or the set
generated or
spanned by .
The concept of closed sets and closure are often extended to any property of subsets that are stable under intersection; that is, every intersection of subsets that have the property has also the property. For example, in
a ''
Zariski-closed set'', also known as an
algebraic set, is the set of the common zeros of a family of polynomials, and the
Zariski closure of a set of points is the smallest algebraic set that contains .
In algebraic structures
An
algebraic structure
In mathematics, an algebraic structure consists of a nonempty set ''A'' (called the underlying set, carrier set or domain), a collection of operations on ''A'' (typically binary operations such as addition and multiplication), and a finite set o ...
is a set equipped with
operations that satisfy some
axioms
An axiom, postulate, or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning 'that which is thought worthy or ...
. These axioms may be
identities. Some axioms may contain
existential quantifiers
in this case it is worth to add some auxiliary operations in order that all axioms become identities or purely
universally quantified formulas. See
Algebraic structure
In mathematics, an algebraic structure consists of a nonempty set ''A'' (called the underlying set, carrier set or domain), a collection of operations on ''A'' (typically binary operations such as addition and multiplication), and a finite set o ...
for details.
In this context, given an algebraic structure , a
substructure of is a subset that is closed under all operations of , including the auxiliary operations that are needed for avoiding existential quantifiers. A substructure is an algebraic structure of the same type as . It follows that, in a specific example, when closeness is proved, there is no need to check the axioms for proving that a substructure is a structure of the same type.
Given a subset of an algebraic structure , the closure of is the smallest substructure of that is closed under all operations of . In the context of algebraic structures, this closure is generally called the substructure ''generated'' or ''spanned'' by , and one says that is a
generating set of the substructure.
For example, a
group is a set with an
associative operation, often called ''multiplication'', with an
identity element
In mathematics, an identity element, or neutral element, of a binary operation operating on a set is an element of the set that leaves unchanged every element of the set when the operation is applied. This concept is used in algebraic structures su ...
, such that every element has an
inverse element. Here, the auxiliary operations are the
nullary operation that results in the identity element and the
unary operation
In mathematics, an unary operation is an operation with only one operand, i.e. a single input. This is in contrast to binary operations, which use two operands. An example is any function , where is a set. The function is a unary operation ...
of inversion. A subset of a group that is closed under multiplication and inversion is also closed under the nullary operation (that is, it contains the identity) if and only if it is non empty. So, a nonempty subset of a group that is closed under multiplication and inversion is a group that is called a
subgroup
In group theory, a branch of mathematics, given a group ''G'' under a binary operation ∗, a subset ''H'' of ''G'' is called a subgroup of ''G'' if ''H'' also forms a group under the operation ∗. More precisely, ''H'' is a subgroup ...
. The subgroup generated by a single element, that is, the closure of this element, is called a
cyclic group
In group theory, a branch of abstract algebra in pure mathematics, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group, denoted C''n'', that is generated by a single element. That is, it is a set of invertible elements with a single associative binary ...
.
In
linear algebra, the closure of a nonempty subset of a
vector space
In mathematics and physics, a vector space (also called a linear space) is a set whose elements, often called '' vectors'', may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called '' scalars''. Scalars are often real numbers, but ...
(under vector-space operations, that is, addition and scalar multiplication) is the
linear span
In mathematics, the linear span (also called the linear hull or just span) of a set of vectors (from a vector space), denoted , pp. 29-30, §§ 2.5, 2.8 is defined as the set of all linear combinations of the vectors in . It can be characterized ...
of this subset. It is a vector space by the preceding general result, and it can be proved easily that is the set of
linear combinations of elements of the subset.
Similar examples can be given for almost every algebraic structures, with, sometimes some specific terminology. For example, in a
commutative ring
In mathematics, a commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra. Complementarily, noncommutative algebra is the study of ring properties that are not ...
, the closure of a single element under
ideal operations is called a
principal ideal.
In topology
In
topology
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending; that is, without closing ...
and related branches, the relevant operation is taking limits. The
topological closure of a set is the corresponding closure operator. The
Kuratowski closure axioms characterize this operator.
Binary relations
A
binary relation on a set can be defined as a subset of
the set of the
ordered pair
In mathematics, an ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') is a pair of objects. The order in which the objects appear in the pair is significant: the ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') is different from the ordered pair (''b'', ''a'') unless ''a'' = ''b''. (In con ...
s of elements of . The notation
is commonly used for
Many properties or operations on relations can be used to define closures. Some of the most common ones follows.
;
Reflexivity
:A relation on the set is ''reflexive'' if
for every
As every intersection of reflexive relations is reflexive, this defines a closure. The
reflexive closure of a relation is thus
;
Symmetry
Symmetry (from grc, συμμετρία "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement") in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, "symmetry" has a more precise definiti ...
:Symmetry is the
unary operation
In mathematics, an unary operation is an operation with only one operand, i.e. a single input. This is in contrast to binary operations, which use two operands. An example is any function , where is a set. The function is a unary operation ...
on
that maps
to
A relation is ''symmetric'' if it is closed under this operation, and the
symmetric closure of a relation is its closure under this relation.
;
Transitivity
:Transitivity is defined by the
partial binary operation on
that maps
and
to
A relation is ''transitive'' if it is closed under this operation, and the
transitive closure
In mathematics, the transitive closure of a binary relation on a set is the smallest relation on that contains and is transitive. For finite sets, "smallest" can be taken in its usual sense, of having the fewest related pairs; for infinite ...
of a relation is its closure under this operation.
A
preorder
In mathematics, especially in order theory, a preorder or quasiorder is a binary relation that is reflexive and transitive. Preorders are more general than equivalence relations and (non-strict) partial orders, both of which are special ...
is a relation that is reflective and transitive. It follows that the reflexive transitive closure of a relation is the smallest preorder containing it. Similarly, the reflexive transitive symmetric closure or equivalence closure of a relation is the smallest
equivalence relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation.
Each equivalence relation ...
that contains it.
Other examples
* In
matroid theory, the closure of ''X'' is the largest superset of ''X'' that has the same rank as ''X''.
* The
transitive closure
In mathematics, the transitive closure of a binary relation on a set is the smallest relation on that contains and is transitive. For finite sets, "smallest" can be taken in its usual sense, of having the fewest related pairs; for infinite ...
of a
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
.
* The
algebraic closure
In mathematics, particularly abstract algebra, an algebraic closure of a field ''K'' is an algebraic extension of ''K'' that is algebraically closed. It is one of many closures in mathematics.
Using Zorn's lemmaMcCarthy (1991) p.21Kaplansky ...
of a
field.
* The
integral closure of an
integral domain in a
field that contains it.
* The
radical of an ideal in a
commutative ring
In mathematics, a commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra. Complementarily, noncommutative algebra is the study of ring properties that are not ...
.
* In
geometry
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is ca ...
, the
convex hull
In geometry, the convex hull or convex envelope or convex closure of a shape is the smallest convex set that contains it. The convex hull may be defined either as the intersection of all convex sets containing a given subset of a Euclidean spac ...
of a set ''S'' of points is the smallest
convex set
In geometry, a subset of a Euclidean space, or more generally an affine space over the reals, is convex if, given any two points in the subset, the subset contains the whole line segment that joins them. Equivalently, a convex set or a convex ...
of which ''S'' is a
subset
In mathematics, set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset o ...
.
* In
formal language
In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language consists of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules.
The alphabet of a formal language consists of sym ...
s, the
Kleene closure of a language can be described as the set of strings that can be made by concatenating zero or more strings from that language.
* In
group theory
In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups.
The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen as ...
, the
conjugate closure or normal closure of a set of
group elements is the smallest normal subgroup containing the set.
* In
mathematical analysis
Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limits, and related theories, such as differentiation, integration, measure, infinite sequences, series, and analytic functions.
These theories are usually studied in ...
and in
probability theory
Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability. Although there are several different probability interpretations, probability theory treats the concept in a rigorous mathematical manner by expressing it through a set ...
, the closure of a collection of subsets of ''X'' under
countably many set operations is called the
σ-algebra
In mathematical analysis and in probability theory, a σ-algebra (also σ-field) on a set ''X'' is a collection Σ of subsets of ''X'' that includes the empty subset, is closed under complement, and is closed under countable unions and countabl ...
generated by the collection.
Closure operator
In the preceding sections, closures are considered for subsets of a given set. The subsets of a set form a
partially ordered set
In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set (also poset) formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with a binary r ...
(poset) for
inclusion. ''Closure operators'' allow generalizing the concept of closure to any partially ordered set.
Given a poset whose partial order is denoted with , a ''closure operator'' on is a
function that is ''increasing'' (
for all
),
idempotent
Idempotence (, ) is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science whereby they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application. The concept of idempotence arises in a number of pl ...
(
), and
monotonic (
).
Equivalently, a function from to is a closure operator if
for all
An element of if ''closed'' if it is its own closure, that is, if
By idempotency, an element is closed
if and only if
In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (shortened as "iff") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false.
The connective is bico ...
it is the closure of some element of .
An example of a closure operator that does not operate on subsets is given by the
ceiling function
In mathematics and computer science, the floor function is the function that takes as input a real number , and gives as output the greatest integer less than or equal to , denoted or . Similarly, the ceiling function maps to the least int ...
, which maps every real number to the smallest integer that is not smaller than .
Closure operator vs. closed sets
A closure on the subsets of a given set may be defined either by a closure operator or by a set of closed sets that is stable under intersection and includes the given set. These two definitions are equivalent.
Indeed, the defining properties of a closure operator implies that an intersection of closed sets is closed: if
is an intersection of closed sets, then
must contain and be contained in every
This implies
by definition of the intersection.
Conversely, if closed sets are given and every intersection of closed sets is closed, then one can define a closure operator such that
is the intersection of the closed sets containing .
This equivalence remains true for partially ordered sets with the
greatest-lower-bound property, if one replace "closet sets" by "closed elements" and "intersection" by "greatest lower bound".
Notes
References
* {{MathWorld , title=Algebraic Closure , urlname=AlgebraicClosure
Set theory
Closure operators
Abstract algebra