An academic degree is a qualification awarded to students upon successful completion of a course of study in

higher education Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after compl ...

, usually at a

college A college (Latin: ''collegium'') is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university, an institution offerin ...

university A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United Stat ...

. These institutions commonly offer degrees at various levels, usually including

undergraduate degree An undergraduate degree (also called first degree or simply degree) is a colloquial term for an academic degree earned by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. In the United States, it is usually offered at an institution of higher e ...

master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

, and

doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''l ...

s, often alongside other

academic certificate An academic certificate is a document that certifies that a person has received specific education or has passed a test or series of tests. In many countries, a certificate is a qualification attained in secondary education. For instance, stude ...

s and

professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

s. The most common undergraduate degree is the

bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to si ...

, although in some countries there are lower level higher education qualifications that are also titled degrees (e.g.

associate degree An associate degree is an undergraduate degree awarded after a course of post-secondary study lasting two to three years. It is a level of qualification above a high school diploma, GED, or matriculation, and below a bachelor's degree. Th ...

s and

foundation degree A foundation degree is a combined academic and vocational qualification in higher education in the United Kingdom, equivalent to two-thirds of an honours bachelor's degree, introduced by the Department for Education and Employment in 2000. Fou ...

s).

History

Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris

Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate

The doctorate (

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

: ''doceo'' "I teach") appeared in

medieval Europe In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

as a license to teach (

: ''licentia docendi'') at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the

early church Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish ...

when the term "doctor" referred to the

Apostles An apostle (), in its literal sense, is an emissary, from Ancient Greek ἀπόστολος (''apóstolos''), literally "one who is sent off", from the verb ἀποστέλλειν (''apostéllein''), "to send off". The purpose of such sending ...

church fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...

and other

Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι� ...

authorities who taught and interpreted the

Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...

. The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved to the

church Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship * Chri ...

which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The

Third Council of the Lateran The Third Council of the Lateran met in Rome in March 1179. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended. The Catholic Church regards it as the eleventh ecumenical council. By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitter ...

of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the

Pope The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...

to the

University of Paris , image_name = Coat of arms of the University of Paris.svg , image_size = 150px , caption = Coat of Arms , latin_name = Universitas magistrorum et scholarium Parisiensis , motto = ''Hic et ubique terrarum'' (Latin) , mottoeng = Here and a ...

in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi''). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and

, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. At the university, doctoral training was a form of

apprenticeship Apprenticeship is a system for training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Apprenticeships can also enable practitioners to gain a ...

to a

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometim ...

. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the

master's degree A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

. Today the terms "master" (from the

'magister'– meaning literally: "teacher"), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the

Medieval university A medieval university was a corporation organized during the Middle Ages for the purposes of higher education. The first Western European institutions generally considered to be universities were established in present-day Italy (including the ...

they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity depending on the place). The earliest doctoral degrees (

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...

– Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.),

law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...

– Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and

medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...

– Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside

and

were then called "

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...

", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of

Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: or ') is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is ...

is a much later time and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as

science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...

s and

humanities Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture. In the Renaissance, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, the main area of secular study in universities at t ...

. George Makdisi theorizes that the ''

ijazah An ''ijazah'' ( ar, الإِجازَة, "permission", "authorization", "license"; plural: ''ijazahs'' or ''ijazat'') is a license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such au ...

'' issued in medieval Islamic

madrasa Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...

s in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities.

Alfred Guillaume Alfred Guillaume (8 November 1888 – 30 November 1965) was a British Christian Arabist, scholar of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and Islam. Career Guillaume was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, the son of Alfred Guillaume. He took up Arabic ...

, Syed Farid al-Attas and

Toby Huff Toby E. Huff was born in Portland, Maine, on April 24, 1942. He was trained as a sociologist but has been increasingly drawn to questions in the history, philosophy and sociology of science. Those inquiries led him to undertake Max Weber-inspire ...

and others reject Makdisi's theory.

Devin J. Stewart Devin J. Stewart is a professor of Islamic studies and Arabic language and literature. His research interests include Islamic law, the Qur'an, Islamic schools and branches and varieties of Arabic.Islamic law Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...

and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. However, a key difference is that the granting authority of the ''ijaza'' is an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity. The

University of Bologna The University of Bologna ( it, Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is a public research university in Bologna, Italy. Founded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (''studiorum''), it is the oldest university in contin ...

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

, regarded as the oldest university in

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

, was the first institution to confer the degree of

Doctor Doctor or The Doctor may refer to: Personal titles * Doctor (title), the holder of an accredited academic degree * A medical practitioner, including: ** Physician ** Surgeon ** Dentist ** Veterinary physician ** Optometrist *Other roles ** ...

in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including

. The

used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ...

universities of

Oxford Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...

and

Cambridge Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge bec ...

, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of

St Andrews St Andrews ( la, S. Andrea(s); sco, Saunt Aundraes; gd, Cill Rìmhinn) is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, southeast of Dundee and northeast of Edinburgh. St Andrews had a recorded population of 16,800 , making it Fife's fourt ...

Glasgow Glasgow ( ; sco, Glesca or ; gd, Glaschu ) is the most populous city in Scotland and the fourth-most populous city in the United Kingdom, as well as being the 27th largest city by population in Europe. In 2020, it had an estimated popu ...

Aberdeen Aberdeen (; sco, Aiberdeen ; gd, Obar Dheathain ; la, Aberdonia) is a city in North East Scotland, and is the third most populous city in the country. Aberdeen is one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas (as Aberdeen City), a ...

and

Edinburgh Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...

Emergence of the bachelor's degree

In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the ''

trivium The trivium is the lower division of the seven liberal arts and comprises grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The trivium is implicit in ''De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii'' ("On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury") by Martianus Capella, but t ...

'' (

grammar In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraints, a field that includes doma ...

rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...

and

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...

) and the ''

quadrivium From the time of Plato through the Middle Ages, the ''quadrivium'' (plural: quadrivia) was a grouping of four subjects or arts—arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy—that formed a second curricular stage following preparatory work in the ...

'' (

arithmetic Arithmetic () is an elementary part of mathematics that consists of the study of the properties of the traditional operations on numbers— addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and extraction of roots. In the 19th ...

geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...

astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...

and

music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...

), together known as the

Liberal Arts Liberal arts education (from Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as La ...

and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of

Bachelor of Arts Bachelor of arts (BA or AB; from the Latin ', ', or ') is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four yea ...

, from the Latin , a term previously used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a

knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...

. Further study and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of

disputation In the scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages, disputations (in Latin: ''disputationes'', singular: ''disputatio'') offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences. Fixed ru ...

s would earn one the

Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( la, Magister Artium or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA, M.A., AM, or A.M.) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Tho ...

degree, from the

magister, "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of

Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...

Medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...

Theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...

and earn first a bachelor's and then master or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the

word "graduate", which is based on the

("step").

Evolution of the terminology of degrees

The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of

arts The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both ...

became known as "master", but those in

and

were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the

. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the

(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on

research Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness ...

and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the

(M.A.). The practice of using the term ''doctor'' for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The

French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...

terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The ''

baccalauréat The ''baccalauréat'' (; ), often known in France colloquially as the ''bac'', is a French national academic qualification that students can obtain at the completion of their secondary education (at the end of the ''lycée'') by meeting certain ...

'' (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their

secondary education Secondary education or post-primary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less commonly junior secondary education) is considered the second and final ph ...

and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded ''licence'', much as the

medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

teaching guilds would have done and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies.

Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...

had a similar structure: the term ''"Bachiller"'' was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as ''"Bachillerato"''. The standard Spanish university 5-years degree was ''"Licenciado"'', (although there were a few 3-years associate degrees called ''"diplomaturas"'', from where the ''"diplomados"'' could move to study a related ''licenciatura''). The highest level was "Doctor".

Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities

In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In

Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It ...

, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the

Archbishop of Canterbury The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. The current archbishop is Just ...

. The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from Peter's Pence Act of 1533 which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope. Among educational institutions,

St David's College, Lampeter University of Wales, Lampeter ( cy, Prifysgol Cymru, Llanbedr Pont Steffan) was a university in Lampeter, Wales. Founded in 1822, and incorporated by royal charter in 1828, it was the oldest degree awarding institution in Wales, with limited ...

was granted limited degree awarding powers by

royal charter A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, b ...

in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. University College North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the

University of Keele Keele University, officially known as the University of Keele, is a public research university in Keele, approximately from Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire, England. Founded in 1949 as the University College of North Staffordshire, Keele ...

) until 1962. Following the

Education Reform Act 1988 The Education Reform Act 1988 is widely regarded as the most important single piece of education legislation in England and Wales since the 'Butler' Education Act 1944. Provisions The main provisions of the Education Reform Act are as follows: ...

, many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the

University of London The University of London (UoL; abbreviated as Lond or more rarely Londin in post-nominals) is a federal public research university located in London, England, United Kingdom. The university was established by royal charter in 1836 as a degr ...

(many of which are now effectively universities in their own right).

Academic dress

In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

Laws on granting and use of degrees

In many countries degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently governments will also regulate the use of ''university'' in names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia and the United Kingdom. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by

fraud In law, fraud is intentional deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud can violate civil law (e.g., a fraud victim may sue the fraud perpetrator to avoid the fraud or recover monetary compen ...

laws.

Indicating earned degrees

Depending on culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title,

post-nominal letters Post-nominal letters, also called post-nominal initials, post-nominal titles, designatory letters or simply post-nominals, are letters placed after a person's name to indicate that the individual holds a position, academic degree, accreditation, ...

, a choice of either or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may also be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at

honours Honour (British English) or honor (American English; see spelling differences) is the idea of a bond between an individual and a society as a quality of a person that is both of social teaching and of personal ethos, that manifests itself as a ...

level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree. For member institutions of the

Association of Commonwealth Universities The Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) was established in 1913, and has over 500 member institutions in over 50 countries across the Commonwealth. The ACU is the world's oldest international network of universities. Its mission is t ...

, there is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, but in practice many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of

and

respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish the

Oxbridge MA In the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, Bachelors of Arts are promoted to the degree of Master of Arts or Master in Arts (MA) on application after six or seven years' seniority as members of the university (including years as an u ...

from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for

Lambeth degree A Lambeth degree is an academic degree conferred by the Archbishop of Canterbury under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 (25 Hen VIII c 21) (Eng) as successor of the papal legate in England. The degrees conferred most commonl ...

s (awarded by the

), 'Dunelm' for

Durham University , mottoeng = Her foundations are upon the holy hills ( Psalm 87:1) , established = (university status) , type = Public , academic_staff = 1,830 (2020) , administrative_staff = 2,640 (2018/19) , chancellor = Sir Thomas Allen , vice_cha ...

, 'Ebor' for the

University of York The University of York (abbreviated as or ''York'' for post-nominals) is a collegiate research university, located in the city of York, England. Established in 1963, the university has expanded to more than thirty departments and centres, co ...

and 'Exon' for the

University of Exeter , mottoeng = "We Follow the Light" , established = 1838 - St Luke's College1855 - Exeter School of Art1863 - Exeter School of Science 1955 - University of Exeter (received royal charter) , type = Public , ...

. The

Ancient universities of Scotland The ancient universities of Scotland () are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist in the present day. The majority of the ancient universities of the British Isles are located within Scotland, and have a number of dist ...

and the

have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the

in the UK and

York University York University (french: Université York), also known as YorkU or simply YU, is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is Canada's fourth-largest university, and it has approximately 55,700 students, 7,000 faculty and sta ...

in Canada or

Newcastle University Newcastle University (legally the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) is a UK public research university based in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England. It has overseas campuses in Singapore and Malaysia. The university is a red brick unive ...

in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates

Master of Science A Master of Science ( la, Magisterii Scientiae; abbreviated MS, M.S., MSc, M.Sc., SM, S.M., ScM or Sc.M.) is a master's degree in the field of science awarded by universities in many countries or a person holding such a degree. In contrast t ...

in the US and places following American usage, but

Master of Surgery The Master of Surgery (Latin: Magister Chirurgiae) is an advanced qualification in surgery. Depending upon the degree, it may be abbreviated ChM, MCh, MChir or MS. At a typical medical school the program lasts between two and three years. The p ...

in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for

Bachelor A bachelor is a man who is not and has never been married.Bachelors are, in Pitt & al.'s phrasing, "men who live independently, outside of their parents' home and other institutional settings, who are neither married nor cohabitating". (). Etymo ...

and

, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for

and

, MD for

Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. ...

and PhD for

Online degree

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a

distance learning Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance. Traditionally, this usually in ...

basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees.

Degree systems by regions

Asia

Bangladesh, India and Pakistan

Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for classification of degrees. However, Pakistan has recently switched to US model of two years associate degree and four year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, have the corresponding degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'Arts' but is nowadays considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master Of Business Administration (MBA). Science referring to the basic sciences and natural science (

Biology Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary ...

Physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which ...

Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, proper ...

etc.) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and its master is called Master of Science (M.Sc.). Another new set of

Information Technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology syste ...

degree conferred specially in the field of

computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...

, Bachelor of Science in information technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in information technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures,

Bachelor of Engineering A Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) or a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) is an academic undergraduate degree awarded to a student after three to five years of studying engineering at an accredited college or university. In the UK, a Ba ...

(B.E.) and

Bachelor of Technology A Bachelor of Technology (Latin ''Baccalaureus Technologiae'', commonly abbreviated as B.Tech. or BTech; with honours as B.Tech. (Hons.)) is an undergraduate academic degree conferred after the completion of a three to five-year program of st ...

(B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in

engineering Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...

. In Pakistan, engineering degrees are

(B.E.) and

Bachelor of Science in Engineering A Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) or a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) is an academic undergraduate degree awarded to a student after three to five years of studying engineering at an accredited college or university. In the UK, a Bach ...

(B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are same in

curriculum In education, a curriculum (; plural, : curricula or curriculums) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to ...

, duration and pattern and differs only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is

(B.Sc. Engineering). Medical Degree – Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Dental Degree – Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS), Computer Application Degree – Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) and Master of Computer Application (MCA).

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...

as many other commonwealth countries follow the British system with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission.

Africa

Tunisia

Grading in Tunisia is done on a scale of 0–20. The passing grade is 10 out of 20 which is 50% of the complete mark, 20. This grading system is used from elementary school up to university level. A PhD thesis is even graded out of 20. To get ahead on the academic ladder, one is strictly assessed numerically. That is; if you are a BA holder applying for an MA program you will be admitted according to how high your grades were during your undergraduate years. Level 4 courses come in the form of 1st year of a bachelors programme or HNC (

Higher National Certificate A Higher National Certificate (HNC), part of the Higher Nationals suite of qualifications, is a higher education/further education qualification in the United Kingdom. Overview In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the HNC is a BTEC qualificati ...

). Depending on the type of associate degree a student may be able to start their 2nd year of bachelors (The course must be the same as the one they are applying for)

South Africa

In South Africa, grades (which are also commonly referred to as "marks") are presented as a percentage, where anything below 50% is a failure. There are generally opportunities to rewrite the exam if the grade of your first attempt was sufficient to warrant an additional attempt. Each institution independently determines which grades warrant an additional attempt. A degree in almost any discipline is available at one or another institution in South Africa. Some institutions are renowned for certain disciplines. Alphabetically, the major disciplines across the country are; Arts,

Commerce Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, natio ...

, Engineering, Law, Medicine, Science and Theology. There are several levels of degrees which are awarded according to a credit-based system devised by the SAQA (South African Qualifications Agency

. Each level of degree has a different level of NQF rating, for example, an undergraduate (3-year) degree in Science is rated as an NQF level 6, and an additional year in that specific discipline will warrant the awarding of an NQF level 8 (or honours degree).

Kenya

In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree starts after students have successfully completed four years of the secondary school education, and attained at least C+ (55-59%) in Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). For students pursuing a degree certificate in bachelor of science engineering, such as B.Sc. Mechanical engineering, Mechanical Engineering, B.Sc.

Mechatronics Engineering Mechatronics engineering also called mechatronics, is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on the integration of mechanical, electrical and electronic engineering systems, and also includes a combination of robotics, electronics, ...

, B.Sc.

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the l ...

, and

Civil Engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewa ...

, they are required to join degree programs that are accredited by engineers board of kenya and commission for university education. B.Sc. degree in engineering takes five years. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years to complete. A degree in

education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...

or management takes around four years. The first postgraduate degree, master's degree, starts after students have completed an undergraduate degree. For students to join a master's degree, they must have attained at least a second class honors upper division (60-69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master course degrees take two years and have no specific final grading. Usually, in an engineering master's degree, a student is required to publish at least one

scientific paper : ''For a broader class of literature, see Academic publishing.'' Scientific literature comprises scholarly publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences. Within an academic field, scienti ...

in a peer reviewed journal. For doctor of philosophy degrees, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. Students are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for at least three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer reviewed journals, relevant to their area of study.

Europe

Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the

Bologna declaration The Bologna declaration (in full, Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education convened in Bologna on 19 June 1999) is the main guiding document of the Bologna process. It was adopted by ministers of education of 29 European countries ...

in 1999, higher education systems in Europe are being harmonised through the Bologna process, based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: ''

Bachelor's A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to si ...

''/''

Licence A license (or licence) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit). A license is granted by a party (licensor) to another party (licensee) as an element of an agreeme ...

'' – ''

Master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

'' – ''

Doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''l ...

'', with the later addition of a "short cycle (within the first cycle)" to cover sub-bachelor's qualifications. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the

European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard means for comparing academic credits, i.e., the "volume of learning based on the defined learning outcomes and their associated workload" for higher education across the ...

(ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and as of September 2016 has 50 members. Implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework; in 38 countries ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes; 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements; and only 11 countries have included all the major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation. From 2008, the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are located primarily in Europe, Europe. The union has a total area of ...

has been developing the

European Qualifications Framework The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) acts as a translation device to make national qualifications more readable across Europe, promoting workers' and learners' mobility between countries and facilitating their lifelong learning. The EQF a ...

(EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to

, the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle and third cycle of the EHEA.

Austria

Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...

, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: * the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/

Diplom A ''Diplom'' (, from grc, δίπλωμα ''diploma'') is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Albania, Bulgaria, Belarus, ...

followed by the

and * the three-cycle system of

Master Master or masters may refer to: Ranks or titles * Ascended master, a term used in the Theosophical religious tradition to refer to spiritually enlightened beings who in past incarnations were ordinary humans *Grandmaster (chess), National Master ...

and

as defined by the Bologna process. With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.

Belgium

While higher education is regulated by the three communities of Belgium, all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the

2000s File:2000s decade montage3.png, From top left, clockwise: The World Trade Center on fire and the Statue of Liberty during the 9/11 attacks in 2001; the euro enters into European currency in 2002; a statue of Saddam Hussein being toppled during th ...

. The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; french: Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or nl, Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat). At the first cycle, the is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year degree (french: Bachelier de spécialisation, lit=Specialized Bachelor; nl, Bachelor-na-bachelor, lit=Bachelor-after-bachelor) and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degree are followed in the second cycle ( EQF level 7) by , that last two year completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The Master's degree can yet again be followed by an (french: Master de spécialisation, lit=Specialized Bachelor; nl, Master-na-master, lit=Master-after-master) that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the degree (french: Doctorat; nl, Doctoraat) that cover a 3 to 7 year long

PhD PHD or PhD may refer to: * Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), an academic qualification Entertainment * '' PhD: Phantasy Degree'', a Korean comic series * '' Piled Higher and Deeper'', a web comic * Ph.D. (band), a 1980s British group ** Ph.D. (Ph.D. al ...

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic implemented the Bologna process, so there are basically three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). There are also voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) achieved after rigorosum exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, instead they study for six years and after obligatory rigorous exam they get the title MUDr. or MDDr. for dentists or MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get "big doctorate" ( Ph.D.) after another three or (more often) four years of studies. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of shortcuts (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name; a Doctor's degree (Ph.D.) is listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). There are more degrees that used to be awarded.

Denmark

Before the adaptation to international standards, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in

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was equivalent to a master's degree (''kandidatgrad''). Officially, bachelor's degrees was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adapted so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length and opposed to academic bachelor's degrees they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180 or 210 or 240 ECTS-points. The academic degrees available at universities are: * ''bachelor i '' (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points) * ''cand. '' (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points) * ''ph.d.'' (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points) * ''dr. '' (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)

Finland

Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics, many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS) With the exception of few fields such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (''kandidaatti / kandidat''), Master's degrees (''maisteri / magister'') and doctoral degrees (''lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen'' and ''tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen''). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees. In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university. The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.

France

The French national education system makes a distinction between a ''diplôme national'' ("national degree") and '' diplôme universitaire'' ("university degree"). The former, which are considered higher status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves. Additionally, private universities and schools may be recognised by the state with a ''diplôme visé'' ("recognised degree") and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the state, the validation having to be renewed every six years. Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research and the

vocational education Vocational education is education that prepares people to work as a technician or to take up employment in a skilled craft or trade as a tradesperson or artisan. Vocational Education can also be seen as that type of education given to an i ...

system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the Bologna Process in France, things are going towards a simplification: schools continue to deliver their own diplomas, but the State recognition and degree awarding is far more ranged than before. Diploma courses such as the University Bachelor of Technology's Diploma (''bachelor universitaire de technologie''; BUT) is recognised as "professionnal bachelor cycle" qualifications worth 180 ECTS credits; the Technologist's Certificate (''brevet de technician supérieur''; BTS) is now recognised as "short cycle" qualifications worth 120 ECTS credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications. Nonetheless, there are diplomas in France with no degree recognition, e.g. specific diplomas designed by various institutions with no recognition from the Ministry of Education, such as the mastère spécialisé or the

Sciences Po , motto_lang = fr , mottoeng = Roots of the Future , type = Public research university'' Grande école'' , established = , founder = Émile Boutmy , accreditation ...

''Bachelor''. The recognised degrees fall in three levels, following the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area. These are the ''licence'' (first cycle), ''master'' (second cycle) and ''doctorat'' (third cycle). All licence degrees are 3 years (180 ECTS credits) in length and all master's degrees are 2 years (120 ECTS credits) in length. There are also 5 year (300 ECTS credits)

engineer's degree An engineer's degree is an advanced academic degree in engineering which is conferred in Europe, some countries of Latin America, North Africa and a few institutions in the United States. The degree may require a thesis but always requires a non-a ...

s, which are master's degree. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine'' and the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire'' are also considered third cycle qualifications.

Germany

Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a '' Magister'' degree in

social science Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of s ...

linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...

and the

or with a ''

'' degree in

natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...

economics Economics () is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics anal ...

business administration Business administration, also known as business management, is the administration of a commercial enterprise. It includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising the business operations of an organization. From the point of view of management ...

political science Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and ...

sociology Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation an ...

and

. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-

-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the Bologna process. The ''Magister'' and ''Diplom'' awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered equivalent to a master's degree, although the ''Diplom'' awarded by a ''Fachhochschule'' (university of applied sciences) is at bachelor's degree level. A special kind of examination is the ''

Staatsexamen The ("state examination" or "exam by state"; pl.: ''Staatsexamina'') is a German government licensing examination that future physicians, dentists, teachers, pharmacists, food chemists, psychotherapists and jurists (i.e., lawyers, judges, publi ...

'' (State Examination). It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers,

lawyers A lawyer is a person who practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions. A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, solicitor, ...

(solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys and

pharmacists A pharmacist, also known as a chemist (Commonwealth English) or a druggist (North American and, archaically, Commonwealth English), is a healthcare professional who prepares, controls and distributes medicines and provides advice and instructi ...

have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six years, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this is normally at master's level, a few courses (e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are assigned to bachelor's level. After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form of

pupillage A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan and Hong Kong, is the final, vocational stage of training for those wishing to become practising barristers. Pupillage is similar to an apprenticeship, during which bar ...

, the ''Vorbereitungsdienst'', for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. At some institutions pharmacists and jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly the ''Diplom''). Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by

bachelor's A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to si ...

(''Bachelor'') and

(''Master'') degrees as part of the Bologna process. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a ''Magister'' or ''Diplom''). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into ''

'' and '' Magister'' programs is no longer possible at most universities, with a few exceptions. Programs leading to ''Staatsexamen'' did usually not make the transition to Bologna degrees.

s are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and

honorary doctorates An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or '' ad hon ...

are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. Well qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a procedure to determine their aptitude administered by the admitting university. The doctoral degree (e.g., Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and generally a research degree. The degree ''Dr. med.'' for

medical doctor A physician (American English), medical practitioner (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, mai ...

s has to be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a ''Diplom'', ''Magister'' or ''Master's'' thesis. Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK, are not present in the German system. However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the

Habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in many European countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching and further education, usually including ...

is a higher academic qualification in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the ''Habilitationsschrift'') or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a ''Privatdozent'' (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.

Greece

In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams). The Greek academic degrees are: * Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree) * Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree) * Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree) * Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)

Ireland

Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the s ...

operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered Level 4–5 on the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at level 6 are also awarded by FETAC. The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) award the following: A higher certificate at Level 6; An ordinary bachelor's degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or

higher diploma A higher diploma is an academic award in Iraq, Libya, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Ireland and Oman. In Iraq, it's one year after bachelor's degree (i.e., not equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In Ireland it is a postgraduate qualification at t ...

at Level 8; A master's degree or postgraduate diploma at Level 9; A doctoral degree or higher doctorate at level 10. These are completed in institutes of technology or universities.

Italy

In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the ''

Diploma A diploma is a document awarded by an educational institution (such as a college or university) testifying the recipient has graduated by successfully completing their courses of studies. Historically, it has also referred to a charter or offici ...

Maturità or its translated terms (''Mature'', ''Matur'', , , , , , ) is a Latin name for the secondary school exit exam or "maturity diploma" in various European countries, including Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, C ...

'' at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. ''liceo classico'' focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; ''liceo scientifico'' focused on scientific subjects such as Maths,

and

but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian Literature; ''liceo linguistico'' focused on Foreign Languages and Literature; ''istituto tecnico'' focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as

Mechanics Mechanics (from Ancient Greek: μηχανική, ''mēkhanikḗ'', "of machines") is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among physical objects. Forces applied to objec ...

Aerospace Aerospace is a term used to collectively refer to the atmosphere and outer space. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications. Aerospace engineering consists of aeronautics and ast ...

Shipbuilding Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to bef ...

Electronics The field of electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Electronics uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification ...

Computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...

Telecommunications Telecommunication is the transmission of information by various types of technologies over wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic systems. It has its origin in the desire of humans for communication over a distance greater than that ...

Fashion industry Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture. The term implies a look defined by the fashio ...

Food industry The food industry is a complex, global network of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population. The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from small, traditional, ...

, Building technology,

and

Economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with th ...

). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests. In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the ''Quadro dei Titoli Italiani'' (QTI), tied to the three cycles of the Bologna Process. This tied together in a three-level system both the new qualifications introduced as part of the Bologna process and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and covers qualifications from university institutions and higher education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions). In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels. The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''

laurea In Italy, the ''laurea'' is the main post-secondary academic degree. The name originally referred literally to the laurel wreath, since ancient times a sign of honor and now worn by Italian students right after their official graduation ceremony ...

'' (bachelor's degree) in universities and the ''Diploma accademico di primo livello'' in AFAM institutions. The older qualifications mapped to this level are the ''Diploma universitario'' and the ''Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS)'' from universities and the ''Diploma di Conservatorio'', ''Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti'', ''Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA)'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza'' and ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica'' from AFAM institutions. The ''laurea'' is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and gives the academic title of ''dottore''; the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with three year courses granting the title of ''dottore''. The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''Laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' in university institutions and the ''Diploma accademico di secondo livello'' in AFAM institutions. The old ''Diploma di laurea'' is mapped to this level. The ''Laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of ''dottore magistrale''. The old ''Diploma di laurea'' took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related ''diploma'' and also granted the title of ''dottore magistrale''. The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''Dottorato di ricerca'' in university institutions and the ''Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca'' in AFAM institutions. The old ''Dottorato di ricerca'' and ''Diploma di specializzazione'' are tied to this level. The ''Dottorato di ricerca'', under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the ''laurea magistralie/specialistica'' and gives the academic titles of ''Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.)'' and PhD. The old ''Diploma di specializzazione'' took two to six years and gave the academic title of ''Specialista''. Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications including the ''Master universitario di primo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the ''Master universitario di secondo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), following on from the ''laurea'' and the ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'' respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The ''Diploma di specializzazione'', which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of ''specialista''. The ''Diploma di perfezionamento'' is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific study fields, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level on the framework. AFAM institutions may offer ''Diploma di perfezionamento o Master'' and ''Diploma accademico di specializzazione''. These are one year and two year qualifications respectively and may be offered at second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding ''(I)'' or ''(II)'' after the qualification name. Higher Schools for Language Mediators offer the ''Diploma di mediatore linguistico'', a first cycle degree taking three years (180 ECTS credits), which gives access to the ''laurea specialistica''. Specialisation Institutes/Schools in Psychoterapy offer the ''Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia'', a third cycle qualification taking at least four years and requiring a ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'' in either Psychology or Medicine and Surgery, along with professional registration.

Netherlands

In the

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the " Tweefasenstructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education,

Wim Deetman Willem Joost "Wim" Deetman (born 3 April 1945) is a retired Dutch politician and teacher who served as Minister of Education and Sciences from 1982 to 1989, Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1989 to 1996 and Mayor of The Hague from ...

. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process.

= Admission

= In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called "'' voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs''" (vwo). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the two levels is access to university education is granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without

physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which ...

biology Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary ...

and

chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, proper ...

will make it impossible to study

. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After 1 September 2002, they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum. For some studies in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access is in place (although under political review for abolishment, February 2011). This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus study and who can not. Almost all

Dutch universities Dutch universities are supported by state funding (with the exception of University Nyenrode) so that universities do not have to rely on private funding to facilitate tuition. All citizens of the Netherlands who complete high school at the pre ...

are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in

business Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." Having a business name does not separ ...

and all others in

Leiden University Leiden University (abbreviated as ''LEI''; nl, Universiteit Leiden) is a public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. The university was founded as a Protestant university in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, as a reward to the city o ...

is the oldest, founded in 1575.

= Pre-Bologna phases

= Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases: * ''The " propedeutische fase" (1–2 years):'' After finishing this phase a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (

Bachelor of Science A Bachelor of Science (BS, BSc, SB, or ScB; from the Latin ') is a bachelor's degree awarded for programs that generally last three to five years. The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University o ...

), BA (

) or LLB (

Bachelor of Laws Bachelor of Laws ( la, Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B.) is an undergraduate law degree in the United Kingdom and most common law jurisdictions. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the law degree awarded by universities in the People's Republic of Ch ...

). * ''The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years):'' Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the " doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of

title. Successful completion however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "

doctorandus Doctorandus (drs., ; ) is a Dutch academic title according to the pre- Bachelor– Master system. The female form is doctoranda (dra., though this abbreviation is no longer used). The title is acquired by passing the ''doctoraalexamen'', the exam ...

", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" – master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (

), MA (

) and LLM (

Master of Laws A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: ' or ') is an advanced postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In mo ...

), depending on the area of study. For medical students the "

" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (

Medical Doctor A physician (American English), medical practitioner (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, mai ...

). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title ''arts'' (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process and can be compared with the MBBS in the UK degree system and the North American MD, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (

-like) study is "drs." (e.g. ''drs. Jansen, arts'') and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands, there is the informal title ''dokter'' for physicians, but not ''doctor'' (dr.), unless they also earn such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "

" degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (internships) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgeon training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time). A

in law uses the title "''meester''" (master, abbreviated as ''mr. Jansen'') instead of drs. and some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "''ingenieur''" (engineer, noted as ''ir. Jansen'') instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to an LL.M (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.) and if got before 1 September 2002, from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since 1 September 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs. before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities. Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a

in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree

MPhil The Master of Philosophy (MPhil; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. In the United States, an MPhil typically includes a taught portion and a significant research portion, during which a thesis project is conducted under supervision. An MPhil ...

is not legally recognised. After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir." or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a promotion study (informally called

) to eventually obtain a doctorate and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one

professor Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin as a "person who professes". Professo ...

. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the board of the

faculty Faculty may refer to: * Faculty (academic staff), the academic staff of a university (North American usage) * Faculty (division) A faculty is a division within a university or college comprising one subject area or a group of related subject ...

with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added. More and more common and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.

= Bachelor/master structure

= All current Dutch academic education programs are offered in the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.

= Academic title bearing

= After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before or the letter D following their name, but not both simultaneously. There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. As of 1 January 2021, the title ‘PhD' and post-nominal degree ‘PhD' can also be used, and these are also legally protected. Stacking of the titles as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldom seen in practice. The honoris cause doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name. Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational (or professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree. What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles. Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title or use the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since 1 September 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names). "''Doctors''" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as " universitair docent" (UD –

assistant professor Assistant Professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States and Canada. Overview This position is generally taken after earning a doctoral degree A docto ...

). With time, experience and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as " universitair hoofddocent" (UHD –

associate professor Associate professor is an academic title with two principal meanings: in the North American system and that of the ''Commonwealth system''. Overview In the '' North American system'', used in the United States and many other countries, it is ...

). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a " hoogleraar" (

), the head of the department. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement and expertise. The position of " hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch

's title, noted as ''prof. Jansen'' or ''professor Jansen'', is connected to one's employment. This means that, should the

leave the

, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of

. Retired professors are an exception and may continue to note the title in front of their name or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professor title and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation. Unlike some other European countries such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in everyday life and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution. Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated). In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity, so some known crimes are not prosecuted).

Norway

Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin term ''candidatus/candidata''. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. For example, Cand. Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years, Cand. Real. (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003 in favour of an international system. The reform of higher education in Norway, ''Kvalitetsreformen'' (''"The Quality Reform"''), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the

Storting The Storting ( no, Stortinget ) (lit. the Great Thing) is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members and is elected every four years ...

, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles ''master'' and ''bachelor (

baccalaureus A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ye ...

)''. The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in

technology Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, scien ...

. The latter corresponds to the former ''sivilingeniør'' degree (not to be confused with a degree in

civil engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewa ...

, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title ''sivilingeniør'', which is still in use for new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written ''philosophiæ doctor'' (instead of the traditional ''doctor philosophiæ''). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

Poland

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...

the system is similar to the German one. * ' title – given by a

; the equivalent of

degree or

degree (depending on

academic major An academic major is the academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits. A student who successfully completes all courses required for the major qualifies for an undergraduate degree. The word ''major'' (also called ''conc ...

); granted after at least 3 years of study. * ' () title –

Engineer's degree An engineer's degree is an advanced academic degree in engineering which is conferred in Europe, some countries of Latin America, North Africa and a few institutions in the United States. The degree may require a thesis but always requires a non-a ...

given by a

technical university An institute of technology (also referred to as: technological university, technical university, university of technology, technological educational institute, technical college, polytechnic university or just polytechnic) is an institution of te ...

; granted after at least about 3.5 years of study. * ' () title – the equivalent of a

degree, granted after 5–6 years of study or 2 years of additional study by holders of a

with classification of

Honours Degree Honours degree has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or ...

. * ' () title – the equivalent of a

Master of Engineering A Master of Engineering (abbreviated MEng, M.E. or M.Eng.) is either an academic or professional master's degree in the field of engineering. International variations Australia In Australia, the Master of Engineering degree is a research de ...

, granted after about 2 years of additional study by holders of a degree of

. * ' () degree – the equivalent of

. * ' () degree – Polish

degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body. * ' () degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the

President of Poland The president of Poland ( pl, Prezydent RP), officially the president of the Republic of Poland ( pl, Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej), is the head of state of Poland. Their rights and obligations are determined in the Constitution of Pola ...

Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics

Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees. In

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...

Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inva ...

and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and 3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study. #

Bachelor degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six y ...

– usually takes 4 years of college. (minimum level to be recognized as having Higher Education) #

Specialist degree The specialist degree is an academic degree conferred by a college or university. The degree is formatted differently worldwide and may be either a five-year program or a doctoral level graduate program that occurs after a master's degree but befo ...

is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 + 1) # Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college. (4 + 2) (But Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of equivalence of amount of educational time). Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates bachelor's degree in them, but only high-level degree is stated in final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70–100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to

. The first level academic degree is called " Kandidat nauk" (that could be translated verbatim as a "Candidate of Sciences"). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (not less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3 publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80–200 pages) called a "dissertation". Finally, there is a "

Doktor Nauk Doctor of Sciences ( rus, доктор наук, p=ˈdoktər nɐˈuk, abbreviated д-р наук or д. н.; uk, доктор наук; bg, доктор на науките; be, доктар навук) is a higher doctoral degree in the Russi ...

" (that could be translated verbatim as a "Doctor of Sciences") degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is granted for contributions in a certain field (formally – who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon or development of new theory or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to

in Germany, France, Austria and some other European countries. In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Kandidat Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree. According to ''Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries'' In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Doktor Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree. According to

International Standard Classification of Education The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is a statistical framework for organizing information on education maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It is a member of the in ...

(ISCED) UNESCO 2011, par.262 for purposes of international educational statistics # DPhil to ''Kandidat Nauk/Philosophy'', # D.Lit. to ''Kandidat Nauk in Literature'', # D.Sc. to ''Kandidat Nauk of Natural Science'', # LL.D. to ''Kandidat Nauk of Legal Science''.

Spain

Spain's higher-education legal framework includes: official and accredited education and non-official education. 1.1 Official and accredited education In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation. Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (''Títulos'') with full academic and professional effects and the degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are: 1. Bachelor's Degree (''Grado'') – 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years. 2. Master's Degree (''Master Universitario'') – 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years. 3. Doctoral degree PhD (''Doctorado'') – in 3–4 years. Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as "''Grado''" and "''Master Universitario''". These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes must implement this framework by law in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

1.2 Non-official education Not all EHEA compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved and/or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as an alternative to accredited study programmes for a variety of reasons: attending the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals that have failed to acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering this alternative studies, though, is the heavy bureaucratic process that needs to be accomplished to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the State and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the State system. These programmes fall within the category of "Non officially approved and accredited" or "''Estudios no oficiales''" and they have no academic or professional effects. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially approved and non-officially approved qualifications when naming their offer of non-official qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as "''Master''" on its own, without the term "''Universitario''". Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a well-deserved reputation. However, neither professional association, government agencies, judiciary authorities, nor universities – other than the study programme provider – are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way. 2. Accreditation system University taught study programmes accreditation is granted through the ANECA, a government dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish Higher Education System and ensures that the data held in the RUCT, a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA prior to their inclusion in the RUCT. The RUCT records all officially approved universities and their bachelor's degrees, master's Degrees and PhDs and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes and universities are assigned a specific number Code (''Código'') by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local government and central government. Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain. ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students and continuity or loss of accreditation and the ANECA Registry records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain. It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (i.e.: Catalonia, Madrid, etc.) 3. Qualifications framework for higher education The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels. Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas. If the ''Consejo'' agrees with ANECA's approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects. All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA enjoy full academic and professional effects in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional practice law in Spain is currently under revision.

Sweden

Switzerland

Before the Bologna Process after 4 or 5 years of study the academic degree of a Licentiate was reached. Depending on the official language of the university it was called ''Lizentiat'' (German) ''Licence'' (French) or ''licenza'' (Italian) and is today considered equivalent to the

according to the Bologna reform. A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a Doctoral's degree. Apart from this most universities offered a

postgraduate diploma A postgraduate diploma (PgD, PgDip, PGDip, PG Dip., PGD, Dipl. PG, PDE) is a postgraduate qualification awarded after a university degree, which supplements the original degree and awards them with a graduate diploma. Countries that award pos ...

with up to two years of study. French-speaking universities called them ''diplôme d'études approfondies'' DEA or DESS, the Italian-speaking university ''post laurea'' and German-speaking universities mostly ''Nachdiplomstudium'' (NDS). Today the federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as

Master of Advanced Studies A Master of Advanced Studies or Master of Advanced Study (MAS, M.A.S., or MASt) is a postgraduate degree awarded in various countries. Master of Advanced Studies programs may be non-consecutive programs tailored for "specific groups of working pro ...

(MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degree. Universities may also offer the possibility to gain a diploma of advanced studies (DAS), less than 60 ECTS credits). These degrees do not normally give access to the doctorate study.

United Kingdom

= England, Wales and Northern Ireland

King's College London Medical School Graduates

The title "degree" is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as "recognised bodies". The standard first degree in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the

conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist, for example Bachelor of Education or

. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's degree. The honours are usually categorised into four classes: * First class honours (1st) * Second class honours, divided into: ** Upper division or upper second (2:1) ** Lower division or lower second (2:2) * Third class honours (3rd). Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the "ordinary" Bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a "pass degree"). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+ for a first, 60-69% for a 2:1, 50-59% for a 2:2, 40-49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although this can vary by institution (e.g. the

Open University The Open University (OU) is a British Public university, public research university and the largest university in the United Kingdom by List of universities in the United Kingdom by enrolment, number of students. The majority of the OU's underg ...

). The

is a qualification at lower than Bachelor's level awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation degree awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an

in the United States. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their Bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland of awarding an MA for a first degree and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates.

Master's degrees A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who have undertaken at least a year of full-time

postgraduate study Postgraduate or graduate education refers to academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. The organization and struc ...

, which may be taught or involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate degrees involving original research. A student undertaking a Master's would normally be expected to already hold a bachelor's degree in a relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching Master's level in one year. Some universities award a Master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as

for engineering, Master of Physics for physics, Master of Mathematics for mathematics and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering. Master's degrees are often graded as: * Distinction * Merit * Pass The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers. Doctoral degrees or

s, such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd) are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to doctoral level – in some cases six, since having a Master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems. Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates – Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their field. UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1–3 denoting further education and levels 4–8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a bachelor's degree at level 6; a master's degree at level 7; and a doctoral degree at level 8. Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degree is published by the

Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) is the independent body that checks on standards and quality in UK higher education. It conducts quality assessment reviews, develops reference points and guidance for providers, and condu ...

and

British degree abbreviations Degree abbreviations are used as an alternative way to specify an academic degree instead of spelling out the title in full, such as in reference books such as ''Who's Who'' and on business cards. Many degree titles have more than one possible abb ...

= Scotland

= The standard first degree for students studying arts or humanities in

Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to ...

is either a

or a

(the latter traditionally awarded by the

Ancient Universities of Scotland The ancient universities of Scotland () are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist in the present day. The majority of the ancient universities of the British Isles are located within Scotland, and have a number of dist ...

for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the

. Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). Not all universities in Scotland adhere to this, in some you study in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year. This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five Highers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh

A-Levels The A-Level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the United Kingdom and the educational a ...

. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England.

Advanced Highers The Advanced Higher is an optional qualification which forms part of the Scottish secondary education system brought in to replace the Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS). The first certification of Advanced Higher was in 2001. It is normally ...

add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts – students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities. Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes: * First class honours * Second class honours, divided into: ** Division one (2:1) pper Second Class Honours** Division two (2:2) ower Second Class Honours* Third class honours Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a ''Special Degree'' (ordinary degree – bachelor's level SCQF Level 9). In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated

Master of Letters The Master of Letters degree (MLitt or LittM; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. Ireland Trinity College Dublin and Maynooth University offer MLitt degrees. Trinity has offered them the longest, owing largely to its tradition as Ireland ...

(M.Litt.) or, in natural and social sciences,

(M.Sc.). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated

Master of Philosophy The Master of Philosophy (MPhil; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. In the United States, an MPhil typically includes a taught portion and a significant research portion, during which a thesis project is conducted under supervision. An MPhil ...

(M.Phil.) or Master of Research (M.Res.). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the postgraduate diploma in education (PGDE). Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes: * Distinction * Credit * Merit * Pass

North America

Canada

In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal government. However, all of Canada follows the three-level bachelor's-master's-doctorate system common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed between the provinces and territories in 2007. Bachelor's degrees are normally three to four years in duration, more commonly three years in Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education). Outside Quebec, three-year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while four-year bachelor's degrees are

honours degree Honours degree has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or ...

s; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at the master's level. Master's degrees take one to three years (in Quebec they normally take one and a half to two years). Doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces and territories, British Columbia offers two-year

s, allowing credit to be transferred into a four-year bachelor's program. In Canada,

first professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

s such as DDS, MD, PharmD and LLB or JD are considered bachelor's level qualifications, despite their often being named as if they were doctorates.

= Quebec

= In the province of

Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirte ...

, the majority of students must attend

prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in Sciences or Humanities, or a three-year technical program, such as Nursing or Computer Science, college graduates obtain a '' college diploma'', which is a prerequisite for access to university-level studies. Although these college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available depending on the college of choice. For example,

Dawson College Dawson College (French: ''Collège Dawson)'' is an English-language public general and vocational college in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The college is situated near the heart of Downtown Montreal in a former nunnery on approximately 12 ac ...

Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as '' Ville-Marie'', or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple- ...

has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma. Special programs, such as physical rehabilitation therapy, are offered in some colleges as well. These programs allow students to enter professional university programs, such as

physiotherapy Physical therapy (PT), also known as physiotherapy, is one of the allied health professions. It is provided by physical therapists who promote, maintain, or restore health through physical examination, diagnosis, management, prognosis, patie ...

(which consists of an integrated Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy and Master of Physical Therapy), without having to meet the usual grade and course prerequisites required from students holding a pre-university science diploma. A similar option is offered for college nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a

Bachelor of Nursing The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN, BScN) also known in some countries as a Bachelor of Nursing (BN) or Bachelor of Science (BS) with a Major in Nursing is an academic degree in the science and principles of nursing, granted by an accredited ...

in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a college diploma in Quebec). Additionally, whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an

before applying to medical schools, Quebec college graduates have the option to enter: * a "medical preparatory" year at

McGill University McGill University (french: link=no, Université McGill) is an English-language public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Founded in 1821 by royal charter granted by King George IV,Frost, Stanley Brice. ''McGill Univer ...

Université de Montréal The Université de Montréal (UdeM; ; translates to University of Montreal) is a French-language public research university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university's main campus is located in the Côte-des-Neiges neighborhood of Côte- ...

and then pursue medical studies for the four following years; * directly into the undergraduate medical education program at

Université Laval Université Laval is a public research university in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The university was founded by royal charter issued by Queen Victoria in 1852, with roots in the founding of the Séminaire de Québec in 1663 by François de Montm ...

(4 to 5 years in duration) or

Université de Sherbrooke The University of Sherbrooke (French: Université de Sherbrooke) (UdS) is a large public French-language university in Quebec, Canada with campuses located in Sherbrooke and Longueuil, a suburb of Montreal approximately west of Sherbrooke. It i ...

(4 years in duration).

Mexico

Education in

Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...

follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. The pre-university academic level is the ''bachillerato'' (also called ''preparatoria''), similar to

high school A secondary school describes an institution that provides secondary education and also usually includes the building where this takes place. Some secondary schools provide both '' lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) and ''upper seconda ...

. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area (a ''carrera''). After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a ''Técnico Superior universitario'' (Associate degree) or a ''licenciatura'' (Bachelor), then a ''maestría'' (Master), then a ''doctorado'' (doctorate). Once in university, students begin the ''carrera'', the study of a precise academic branch like economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering or medicine. Students will be in university for 8–10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. Upon graduation, students receive a ''licenciatura'' in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American

Bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to si ...

. They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" that refers to an engineer or MD respectively. Several Mexican universities offer students the possibility of obtaining an equivalent to an

, called in Mexico ''Técnico Superior universitario'' (TSU), studying only half of the ''licenciatura'', with the possibility of finishing a full bachelor's degree later. This is done mainly in fields like engineering and computer sciences. After receiving the ''licenciatura'', students may take extra courses called ''diplomados'' (similar to a

Certification Certification is the provision by an independent body of written assurance (a certificate) that the product, service or system in question meets specific requirements. It is the formal attestation or confirmation of certain characteristics of a ...

but issued by a university). These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level, usually studied to demonstrate that the student still updated in his field. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the ''maestría'', equivalent to the

. Study at the ''maestría'' level takes 1–3 years and mandates completion of a

thesis A thesis ( : theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144 ...

. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying. Traditionally, students who have completed the ''maestria'' may continue on to the ''doctorado'' or the

. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In last years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before or not completing at all a Master course.

United States

In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor's, master's, and doctorate has been in place but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent. The U.S. Department of Education now classifies degrees in six categories:

master's degrees A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

, intermediate graduate qualifications and

research doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' l ...

s. The standard academic progression remains bachelor's—master's—(research) doctorate. Most standard ''academic'' programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often

(B.A.) or

(B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often

(M.A.) or

(M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length) and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time limit on the accumulation of academic degrees. By far the most common research doctorate is the

(Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of research doctorates in 2014. The

Doctor of Education The Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or D.Ed.; Latin ''Educationis Doctor'' or ''Doctor Educationis'') is (depending on region and university) a research or professional doctoral degree that focuses on the field of education. It prepares the holder for a ...

(Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates) and all other research doctorates were less than 1% in total. Some schools, mostly

junior college A junior college (sometimes referred to colloquially as a juco, JuCo or JC) is a post-secondary educational institution offering vocational training designed to prepare students for either skilled trades and technical occupations and workers in ...

s and

community college A community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries: many community colleges have an "open enrollment" for students who have graduated from high school (also known as senior s ...

s and some four-year schools, offer an

for two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields and the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.) degrees. Articulation agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward the completion of a bachelor's degree. The "

" is a graduate-level degree program designed to prepare graduates for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship and research. First, professional degrees require a minimum of two years prior to college-level education to enter the program and a minimum of six years of total college-level education (including that undertaken prior to entry) to complete the program. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission and many require seven or eight years of total study. Many first professional degrees, e.g. M.D., J.D. or

D.O. Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO or D.O., or in Australia DO USA) is a medical degree conferred by the 38 osteopathic medical schools in the United States. DO and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees are equivalent: a DO graduate may become licens ...

are named as doctorates but should not be confused with research doctorates such as the Ph.D. (or, in law, the S.J.D.). First professional degrees should also not be confused with professional master's degrees such as the M.Arch. and M.B.A., which are classified as master's degrees, or with intermediate graduate qualifications that also bear the title of doctor, such as D.Min. or D.Psy. Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between the master's level and doctorate. They include awards such as Advanced Certificates, Advanced Graduate Certificates, Graduate Diplomas,

Professional Engineer Regulation and licensure in engineering is established by various jurisdictions of the world to encourage life, public welfare, safety, well-being, then environment and other interests of the general public and to define the licensure process thro ...

status, and Professional Diplomas, as well as

specialist degree The specialist degree is an academic degree conferred by a college or university. The degree is formatted differently worldwide and may be either a five-year program or a doctoral level graduate program that occurs after a master's degree but befo ...

s such as Education Specialist,

Doctor of Ministry The Doctor of Ministry (abbreviated DMin or D.Min.) is a professional doctorate, often including a research component, that may be earned by a minister of religion while concurrently engaged in some form of ministry. It is categorized as an advance ...

Doctor of Psychology The Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D. or D.Psych.) is a professional doctoral degree intended to prepare graduates for careers that apply scientific knowledge of psychology and deliver empirically based service to individuals, groups and organizatio ...

and the Licentiate in Sacred Theology. In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt., etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight. Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.

= Current levels of attainment of degrees

= Traditionally more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States according to results of the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time. The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was 1996.

= Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US

= Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of which were graduates), implemented by the education technology company Greenwood Hall, reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 10–15 years ago. Media coverage of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the public's perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who didn't attend college and live longer, healthier lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees. Studies like the 2011 Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in higher education may not still be worth it.

Oceania

Australia

The

Australian Qualifications Framework The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) specifies the standards for educational qualifications in Australia. It is administered nationally by the Australian Government's Department of Industry, with oversight from the States and Territor ...

(AQF) covers 10 levels, of which 6 – 10 correspond to academic degrees. These are: the ''

'' (level 6), which normally takes 2 years; the ''

bachelor degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six y ...

'' (level 7), which normally takes 3 years, the '' bachelor honours degree'' (level 8), which normally takes 1 year after the bachelor's degree and is mostly taken as an optional extension year depending on the discipline, the ''master degree'' (level 9), which normally takes 1 – 2 years for "research" or "coursework" degrees and 3 – 4 years for an "extended" degree and follows on from either a bachelor or honours degree; and the ''

doctoral degree A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' ...

'' (level 10), which normally takes 3 – 4 years following on from a master's degree or a Class I or IIa honours qualification. Also included within the higher education system are: diplomas at level 5 (first year of a degree course); advanced diplomas, at level 6 (associate degree level); and graduate certificates and graduate diplomas, both of which are at level 8 (honours degree level). In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelor's degrees with honours being the exception. Categories of honours degrees are: * First Class Honours (H1 or I; overall mark of 80% and above); * Second Class Honours - A Division (H2A or IIA; overall mark of 74% to 79%); * Second Class Honours - B Division (H2B or IIB; overall mark of 70% to 74%); * Third Class Honours (H3 or III; overall mark of 65% to 69%). Lower marks do not qualify for honours, but yield a bachelor degree at: * Pass (P: overall mark of 50% to 64%); * Fail (N or Failed; overall mark of 49% and below). Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled

s) or professional doctorates (normally titled to refer to the field of practice, e.g.

Doctor of Engineering The Doctor of Engineering, or Engineering Doctorate, (abbreviated DEng, EngD, or Dr-Ing) is a degree awarded on the basis of advanced study and a practical project in the engineering and applied science for solving problems in the industry. In th ...

. Professional doctorates still require research leading to "a significant and original contribution to knowledge in the context of professional practice" and should not be confused with extended master's degrees that bear similar names for historical reasons: the

Juris Doctor The Juris Doctor (J.D. or JD), also known as Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D., JD, D.Jur., or DJur), is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. The J.D. is the standard degree obtained to practice l ...

and Doctors of Medical Practice, Physiotherapy, Dentistry and Optometry. Despite their names, these extended master's degrees may not be described as doctoral degrees nor do they confer the right to use the title of doctor on their recipients.

New Zealand

Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications Framework; NZQF) and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the levels of the two frameworks. However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7 – 10 correspond to academic degrees. These are the

(level 7), bachelor honours degree (level 8),

(level 9) and the

(level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has certificates across levels 1 – 6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, graduate certificates and graduate diplomas at level 7 (bachelor's) and postgraduate certificates and

s at level 8 (honours). Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National Framework for Qualifications found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to improve compatibility for the sub-degree levels (1 – 6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7 – 9 were not included in the study. In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours (1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd) or with distinction or merit.

South America

Argentina

Brazil

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a Licentiate degree or a Technologist degree. Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally takes four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years. Licentiate degree, normally takes four-years length degrees, available for students who want to qualify as

school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes co ...

teachers. ''Licenciatura'' courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities and natural sciences. Technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years. These degrees are turned to fast entry the industry. Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as ''transferência interna''), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major. Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, Licentiate or Technologist are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced

master Master or masters may refer to: Ranks or titles * Ascended master, a term used in the Theosophical religious tradition to refer to spiritually enlightened beings who in past incarnations were ordinary humans *Grandmaster (chess), National Master ...

's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the

Natural Sciences Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeat ...

post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects with sometimes the prospect is given ''in promptu'' during the interview, preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies. There are two types of post-graduate programs, lato sensu (specialization and MBAs) and stricto sensu (professional master's, master's and doctorate): Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number (minimum 360 hours) of graduate classes but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only present a final work showing the knowledge. It's a professional level where theory and practice are focused in a broad sense. Professional Master's or master's degrees usually takes one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to the academic knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Doctor's degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute. Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of

São Paulo São Paulo (, ; Portuguese for ' Saint Paul') is the most populous city in Brazil, and is the capital of the state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest Brazilian state, located in the country's Southeast Region. Listed by the GaW ...

still award the title of Livre-Docente (''free

docent The title of docent is conferred by some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks at or below the full professor rank, similar to a British readership, a French " ''maître de conf ...

''), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German

, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a ''Livre-Docência'' examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors. ''See also

Universities and Higher Education in Brazil Brazil adopts a mixed system of public and privately funded universities. Public universities can be federally funded or financed by State governments (such as USP, Unicamp and Unesp in the State of São Paulo). Private schools can be for-profit ...

Colombia

In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model been similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a "" (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a "Técnico" (technician); this degree consists in two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a ¨Tecnólogo¨ (equivalent to associate degree) and consist of 3 years of study. After this, students, now called "" (professionals), Tecnólogos (associates) or "" (technicians), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree is the master's degree with the title of "" and doctorate degree known as "" (doctorate). The master's degree normally consists of two years. Students also can take a specialization course, "", equivalent to a graduate certificate degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S. are very popular, because it requires only one to two years of study. A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may not go directly to the "" without having the "Master" degree first.

Chile

After completing "" (high school), students receive a "Licenciatura de Enseñanza Media" (high school diploma), which is a requirement for higher education. In Chile, there's a distinction between academic degrees and professional titles: * is the denomination given to an academic degree granted by a higher education institution recognized by the Chilean Mineduc (Ministry of Education). * is the denomination given to a professional title. Some professional titles are required for occupations such as physicians, attorneys and as civil/commercial engineers. A professional title may or not require a "Grado académico", additional examination and/or work experience. For example, the "" professional title is granted by the Chilean Supreme Court and requires an examination, academic degree and 6 months of pro-bono work experience. Among degrees, we can find the following levels: * , undergraduate degree obtained by completing a 2-year "bachillerato". * , undergraduate degree obtained as a 4+ year "licenciatura". Equivalent to a bachelor's degree. * , graduate degree, requiring a "Licenciado" degree or equivalent. Equivalent to a master's degree. * , a doctoral degree, often requiring a "Magister" degree or equivalent. Higher education programs that provide a professional title but not an academic degree are referred to as "", which are similar in duration and scope to associate degree programs. These are often granted by educational institutions of the type "Instituto profesional" (IP) or "Centro de formación técnica" (CFT).

Venezuela

Titles in Venezuela start with the ''Certificado de Educación Básica'' (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing 9th grade. The next title is earned upon completing 11th grade and may be ''Bachiller en Ciencias'' (High School Graduate of Science), ''Bachiller en Humanidades'' (High School Graduate of Humanities) or ''Técnico en Ciencias'' (Science Technician). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "Technician" titles) while elsewhere, the student is required to decide whether to study Sciences or Humanities for the last two years of secondary school. Titles at the higher education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the title of ''Técnico Superior Universitario'' (university higher technician, to distinguish from science technician). Universities award the student with the title of ''Ingeniero'' (engineer) or with the title ''Licenciado'' (licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The engineer have more physics subjects than the licentiate, but both are five-year careers. Some higher education institutions may award ''Diplomados'' (diploma), but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6 year-career. Postgraduate education follows conventions of the United States (being named "master's" and "doctorate" after the programs there)

Pontifical universities

Pontifical universities A pontifical university is an ecclesiastical university established or approved directly by the Holy See, composed of three main ecclesiastical faculties (Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law) and at least one other faculty. These academic institute ...

around the world such as the Pontifical University, St Patrick's College, Maynooth in Ireland, the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas in

Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populated ...

,The direct competence of the Holy See applies only to the Ecclesiastical Faculties of Theology, Philosophy and Canon. The other sciences and arts degrees are under the competence of the Department of Education of the Philippine Republic.

The Catholic University of America The Catholic University of America (CUA) is a private Roman Catholic research university in Washington, D.C. It is a pontifical university of the Catholic Church in the United States and the only institution of higher education founded by U.S. ...

, the

Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas A pontifical ( la, pontificale) is a Christian liturgical book containing the liturgies that only a bishop may perform. Among the liturgies are those of the ordinal for the ordination and consecration of deacons, priests, and bishops to Holy ...

, ''Angelicum'' in Rome, the

University of Louvain A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, the ...

(UCLouvain) in Belgium and the

Pontifical Catholic University of Peru Pontifical Catholic University of Peru ( es, link=no, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, PUCP) is a private university in Lima, Peru. It was founded in 1917 with the support and approval of the Catholic Church, being the oldest private ...

depend for their status as pontifical universities and for the nature of their academic degrees on the

through the

Congregation for Catholic Education , type = Congregation , seal = Coat of arms Holy See.svg , seal_size = 100px , seal_caption = Coat of arms of the Holy See , logo = , picture =Via della Conciliazione din Roma1.jpg , picture_caption = Palazzo delle Congregazioni in Piazza ...

. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical institutions of education is outlined in the apostolic constitution ''Sapientia Christiana''. In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, Ecclesiastical or

"are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties, theology, philosophy and canon law and at least one other faculty. A Pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in the apostolic constitution ''Sapientia christiana''." There are three cycles of degrees that constitute the core of degrees granted by pontifical universities: the first cycle leading to the baccalaureate degree; the second cycle leading to the licentiate degree; the third cycle leading to the

. From this core pontifical universities confer degrees including:
Theology * Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus'' (S.T.B.) * Licentiate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus'' (S.T.L.) * Doctorate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus'' (S.T.D.) Philosophy * Baccalaureate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Baccalaureatus'' (Ph.B.) * Licentiate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Licentiatus'' (Ph.L.) * Doctorate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Doctoratus'' (Ph.D.) Canon Law * Baccalaureate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus'' (J.C.B.) * Licentiate in Canon Law, ''Iuris Canonici Licentiatus'' (J.C.L.) * Doctorate in Canon Law, ''Iuris Canonici Doctoratus'' (J.C.D.)

References

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