Aggadah
Aggadah ( he, ''ʾAggāḏā'' or ''Haggāḏā''; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: אַגָּדְתָא ''ʾAggāḏəṯāʾ''; "tales, fairytale, lore") is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, ...
) from their Jewish teachers. This is seen especially in the exegesis of Justin Martyr,
Aphraates
Aphrahat (c. 280–c. 345; syr, ܐܦܪܗܛ ''Ap̄rahaṭ'', ar, أفراهاط الحكيم, , grc, Ἀφραάτης, and Latin ''Aphraates'') was a Syriac Christian author of the third century from the Persian / Sasanian Empire who composed a ...
Syriac Christians
Syriac Christianity ( syr, ܡܫܝܚܝܘܬܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܬܐ / ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a distinctive branch of Eastern Christianity, whose formative theological writings and traditional liturgies are expr ...
have always been reading and using Hebrew texts. In western Christianity, however, knowledge of Hebrew was historically scarce outside of converts from Judaism.Aryeh Grabois, "Christian Hebraists", in
Joseph Strayer
Joseph Reese Strayer (1904–1987) was an American medievalist historian. He was a student of and mentored by Charles Homer Haskins, America's first prominent medievalist historian.
Life
Strayer taught at Princeton University for many decades, st ...
(ed.), ''The Dictionary of the Middle Ages'' (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983), vol. 3, pp. 313–14. It has often been claimed that the Venerable Bede (d.735) knew something of Hebrew, but his knowledge appears to have been gleaned entirely from St Jerome. The same may be said of
Alcuin
Alcuin of York (; la, Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus; 735 – 19 May 804) – also called Ealhwine, Alhwin, or Alchoin – was a scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student o ...
(b. 735), who revised the Biblical translation of Jerome. The ninth-century Pseudo-Jerome, who worked in the circle of Rabanus Maurus (d.856), had knowledge of Hebrew.
During the Twelfth-Century Renaissance, contact between Christian and Jewish scholars increased. Peter Abelard (d.1142) recommended Christian scholars take up the language of the Old Testament and many followed this recommendation. The
School of Saint Victor
The school of St Victor was the medieval monastic school at the Augustinian abbey of St Victor in Paris. The name also refers to the Victorines, the group of philosophers and mystics based at this school as part of the University of Paris.
It ...
became the centre of Hebraism in western Europe. The
school of Toledo
The Toledo School of Translators ( es, Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Judeo-Islamic philosophies and scientific w ...
also worked with Hebrew, but it was secondary to Arabic. Adam of Saint Victor (d.1146) was the most prominent Victorine Hebraist and his student, Herbert of Bosham (fl.1162–89), studied with Abraham ibn Ezra (d.c.1167) to acquire deeper grammatical understanding. The Cistercian tradition of Hebrew studies began with Nicholas Manjacoria.
In the thirteenth century, Hebrew learning declined among native Christians, while converts from Judaism mainly used their knowledge polemically against their co-ethnics. The tradition of scholarly Hebraism was strongest in England. Among the prominent English Hebraists were
Alexander Neckham
Alexander Neckam (8 September 115731 March 1217) was an English magnetician, poet, theologian, and writer. He was an abbot of Cirencester Abbey from 1213 until his death.
Early life
Born on 8 September 1157 in St Albans, Alexander shared his bi ...
(d.1217);
Stephen Langton
Stephen Langton (c. 1150 – 9 July 1228) was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and his death in 1228. The dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III over his ...
(d.1228), who composed a Hebrew–Latin dictionary of Biblical terms; William de la Mare (fl.1272–79), who was patronised by Robert Grosseteste (d.1253); and
Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon (; la, Rogerus or ', also '' Rogerus''; ), also known by the scholastic accolade ''Doctor Mirabilis'', was a medieval English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiri ...
(d.c.1292), who wrote Hebrew grammar.
In the fourteenth century, the
Franciscans
, image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg
, image_size = 200px
, caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans
, abbreviation = OFM
, predecessor =
, ...
and Dominicans took up Hebrew, but their purpose was evangelical. They were instrumental, however, in setting up chairs of Hebrew in universities across Europe. The ecumenical
Council of Vienne
The Council of Vienne was the fifteenth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church and met between 1311 and 1312 in Vienne, France. One of its principal acts was to withdraw papal support for the Knights Templar at the instigation of Phili ...
(1312) ordered chairs established at the universities of Rome, Oxford, Paris, Salamanca and Bologna. Paris had the leading Hebraist of the period in
Nicholas of Lyra
Nicolas de Lyra
__notoc__
1479
Nicholas of Lyra (french: Nicolas de Lyre; – October 1349), or Nicolaus Lyranus, a Franciscan teacher, was among the most influential practitioners of biblical exegesis in the Middle Ages. Little is know ...
(d.1349), while following him was Bishop
Paul of Burgos
Paul of Burgos (Burgos, 1351 – 29 August 1435) was a Spanish Jew who converted to Christianity, and became an archbishop, Lord Chancellor, and exegete. He is known also as Pablo de Santa Maria, Paul de Santa Maria, and Paulus episcop ...
(d.1435), a Jewish convert.
Renaissance
It was not, however, until the end of the 15th century that the Renaissance and the Reformation, while awakening a new interest in the classics, brought about a return to the original text of Scripture and an attempt to understand the later literature of the Jews. Hieronymus Buslidius, the friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a Hebrew chair at
Louvain
Leuven (, ) or Louvain (, , ; german: link=no, Löwen ) is the capital and largest city of the province of Flemish Brabant in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is located about east of Brussels. The municipality itself comprises the historic c ...
; as the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris, Francis offered the chair to
Elijah Levita
Elia Levita (13 February 146928 January 1549) ( he, אליהו בן אשר הלוי אשכנזי), also known as Elijah Levita, Elias Levita, Élie Lévita, Elia Levita Ashkenazi, Eliahu Levita, Eliyahu haBahur ("Elijah the Bachelor"), Elye Bok ...
, the friend of Cardinal Ægidius of Viterbo, who declined to accept it. Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Kabbalah with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526). Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first to write a dictionary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506). A more detailed grammar was published by Otto Walper in 1590. But interest still centered wholly around the Bible and the expository literature immediately connected therewith.
During the whole of the 16th century it was Hebrew grammar and Jewish exegesis that claimed attention. Christian scholars were not ashamed to be the students of Jewish teachers. In fact, one of the most noted Hebraists of this period was
Immanuel Tremellius
Immanuel Tremellius ( it, Giovanni Emmanuele Tremellio; 1510 – 9 October 1580) was an Italian Jewish convert to Christianity. He was known as a leading Hebraist and Bible translator.
Life
He was born at Ferrara and educated at the University o ...
(1510-1580), born Jewish and converted first to Catholicism and soon thereafter became a Calvinist, producing the main Reformed translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin (he also translated the New Testament from the Syriac into Latin).
Sebastian Münster
Sebastian Münster (20 January 1488 – 26 May 1552) was a German cartographer and cosmographer. He also was a Christian Hebraist scholar who taught as a professor at the University of Basel. His well-known work, the highly accurate world map, ...
(d. 1552) was known as a grammarian; Pellicanus (d. 1556) and Pagninius (d. 1541), as lexicographers; Daniel Bomberg (d. 1549), as a printer of Hebrew books. Arius Montanus (d. 1598) edited the
Masorah
Masorah or Mesorah ( he, מסורה) refers either to the transmission of Jewish religious tradition, or to the tradition itself, and may refer to:
* The Hebrew vowel points also known as niqqud.
* Masoretic Text, the authoritative text of the Tan ...
and the ''Travels of Benjamin of Tudela''. Widmanstadt (1523), living in a colony of Spanish Jewish refugees in Naples, studied Hebrew with David ibn Ya'ya and Baruch of Benevento, and collected the Hebrew manuscripts which formed the basis of the Hebrew division of the Royal Library at Munich. Vatablé (d. 1547) made use of
Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
's commentary.
Conrad Gesner
Conrad Gessner (; la, Conradus Gesnerus 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist. Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his tale ...
(d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books; Jacob Christmann (d. 1613) busied himself with the Jewish calendar, and Drusius (d. 1616) with the ethical writings of the Jews.
17th century
Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) marks a turning-point in the study of Jewish literature by Christians. He not only studied the ''
Targum
A targum ( arc, תרגום 'interpretation, translation, version') was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ''Tanakh'') that a professional translator ( ''mǝturgǝmān'') would give in the common language of the ...
'' and the ''Talmud'', but endeavored to understand Jewish history, and he was the first real bibliographer. Women showed an interest:
Anna Maria van Schurman
Anna Maria van Schurman (November 5, 1607 – May 4, 1678) was a Dutch painter, engraver, poet, and scholar, who is best known for her exceptional learning and her defence of female education. She was a highly educated woman, who excelled in ...
Duke of Saxe-Weimar
Saxe-Weimar (german: Sachsen-Weimar) was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty in present-day Thuringia. The chief town and capital was Weimar. The Weimar branch was the most genealogically senior extant bra ...
Johannes Cocceius
Johannes Cocceius (also Coccejus; ; 9 August 1603 – 5 November 1669) was a Dutch theologian born in Bremen.
Life
After studying at Hamburg and the University of Franeker, where Sixtinus Amama was one of his teachers, he became in 1630 profe ...
John Lightfoot
John Lightfoot (29 March 1602 – 6 December 1675) was an English churchman, rabbinical scholar, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge.
Life
He was born in Stoke-on-Trent, the son of T ...
(d. 1675); Johann Leusden (d. 1699); and especially Surenhuis (1698), who gave a complete translation of the '' Mishnah''; Jewish theology was studied by Carpzov (d. 1699), Wagenseil (1705; whose letters show how he gathered information), and Johann Stephan Rittangel (1641); antiquities, by
Samuel Bochart
Samuel Bochart (30 May 1599 – 16 May 1667) was a French Protestant biblical scholar, a student of Thomas Erpenius and the teacher of Pierre Daniel Huet. His two-volume '' Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan'' (Caen 1646) exerted a profound in ...
(d. 1667), Hottinger (d. 1667), Hyde (d. 1700), Trigland (d. 1705), Breithaupt (1707), and Johann Jakob Schudt (d. 1722). It was a time in which the Christian theologian studied Hebrew and rabbinics before taking up his specific theological study. Hackspan (d. 1659) wrote upon the value to the theologian of studying the works of the Rabbis. Their writings on the Bible were read by Schickard (1635),
Humphrey Hody
Humphrey Hody (1659 – 20 January 1707) was an English scholar and theologian.
Life
He was born at Odcombe in Somerset in 1659. In 1676 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1685. In 1692 he became chaplain t ...
(d. 1706), and Richard Simon (d. 1712), while catalogues of Hebrew collections were published by Plantavitius (d. 1651), Le Long (d. 1721), and Montfaucon (d. 1741). Hottinger gave this literature a place in his ''Bibliotheca Orientalis''; Otho (1672) wrote a biographical lexicon of the Mishnah teachers; and Bartolocci's ''Bibliotheca Rabbinica'' (1675) was a worthy continuation of these bibliographical labors.
18th century
The first half of the 18th century contains the names of three important scholars. Jacques Basnage knew no Hebrew, but his ''L'Histoire de la Religion des Juifs'' was the first attempt at a complete presentation of the history of Judaism. The ''Entdecktes Judenthum'' of Eisenmenger (d.1704) exhibits a mass of Jewish learning. Johann Christoph Wolf (d. 1739), who, with the help of the Oppenheimer library, was able to produce his ''Bibliotheca Hebræa'', which laid the foundation for all later works in Hebrew bibliography.
Johann Christian Georg Bodenschatz (d. 1797), though not a scholarly Hebraist, gave an accurate account of Jewish ceremonials. By the side of these stand Bashuysen (d. 1750), the translator and printer of Hebrew books;
Reland
Adriaan Reland (also known as ''Adriaen Reeland/Reelant'', ''Hadrianus Relandus'') (17 July 1676, De Rijp, North Holland5 February 1718, UtrechtJohn Gorton, ''A General Biographical Dictionary'', 1838, Whittaker & Co.) was a noted Dutch Oriental ...
(d. 1718), the first to use Talmudic material for the study of the geography of Palestine; the bibliographers Unger (d. 1719) and Gagnier (d. 1720), who gave Wolf his information regarding the manuscripts in the Bodleian; J. H. Michaelis (d. 1738) and Mai (d. 1732), who compiled a catalogue of the Uffenbach library; Baratier (d. 1740), the youthful prodigy, who wrote on
Benjamin of Tudela
Benjamin of Tudela ( he, בִּנְיָמִין מִטּוּדֶלָה, ; ar, بنيامين التطيلي ''Binyamin al-Tutayli''; Tudela, Kingdom of Navarre, 1130 Castile, 1173) was a medieval Jewish traveler who visited Europe, Asia, an ...
; Mill (d. 1756), who treated rabbinical exegesis; and Wähner (1762), who described Hebrew antiquities. Biagio Ugolini (1744) is said to have been a converted Jew, and therefore finds no place here. Special mention should be made of Ezra Stiles, the learned president of
Yale College
Yale College is the undergraduate college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the original school of the university. Although other Yale schools were founded as early as 1810, all of Yale was officially known as Yale College until 1887, ...
(1778), certainly the most learned Christian student of post-Biblical Jewish literature that America has produced.
Early 19th century
Towards the end of the 18th century such friends of Hebrew literature became ever rarer. The rise of Biblical criticism and of the study of other Semitic languages engaged the whole interest of Semitic scholars.
Even Rabe, the translator of the '' Mishnah'' into German (d. 1798), Semmler, Michaelis, Tychsen (d. 1815), and
Sylvestre de Sacy
Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy (; 21 September 175821 February 1838), was a French nobleman, linguist and orientalist. His son, Ustazade Silvestre de Sacy, became a journalist.
Life and works
Early life
Silvestre de Sacy was born in Pa ...
(d. 1838) can hardly be mentioned by the side of the humanists of previous centuries. Interest in the text of the Bible caused some work to be done in the collecting of Hebrew manuscripts, especially by
Benjamin Kennicott
Benjamin Kennicott (4 April 171818 September 1783) was an English churchman and Hebrew scholar.
Life
Kennicott was born at Totnes, Devon where he attended Totnes Grammar School. He succeeded his father as master of a charity school, but the gene ...
in England (1776–80) and
Giovanni Bernardo De Rossi
Giovanni Bernardo De Rossi (October 25, 1742 in Castelnuovo Nigra, Piedmont – March 23, 1831 in Parma) was an Italian Christian Hebraist. He studied in Ivrea and Turin. In October 1769, he was appointed professor of Oriental languages at the ...
The downward trend continued in the first half of the 19th century;
Jewish literature
Jewish literature includes works written by Jews on Jewish themes, literary works written in Jewish languages on various themes, and literary works in any language written by Jewish writers. Ancient Jewish literature includes Biblical literature ...
became less and less a subject of investigation by Christians; and when it was studied it was generally for the purpose of forging weapons against the people whose literature it was. This is seen in such works as A. T. Hartmann's ''Thesaurus Linguæ Hebr. c Mischna Augendi'' (1825), in Winer's ''Biblisches Real Wörterbuch'', and even in the works of Hitzig and Ewald. There was no understanding even of the period of
Jewish history
Jewish history is the history of the Jews, and their nation, religion, and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures. Although Judaism as a religion first appears in Greek records during the Hellenisti ...
during which Christianity arose and developed; and
David Strauss
David Friedrich Strauss (german: link=no, Strauß ; 27 January 1808 – 8 February 1874) was a German liberal Protestant theologian and writer, who influenced Christian Europe with his portrayal of the "historical Jesus", whose divine nature he ...
's complaint in regard to this was only too well founded.
During the second half of the 19th century, however, the idea gained currency that there was something to be learned by going back to the sources of this history; but only a very few of the universities made a place for this study in their curricula. At the beginning of the 18th century David Rudolph of Liegnitz included ''Rabbinisch und Chaldäisch'' among the Oriental languages which he taught at Heidelberg; but he had few imitators; and in the 19th century, apart from a few stray courses, such as Emil Kautzsch's on Kimhi at Tübingen, Lagarde's on
Al-Ḥarizi
Yehuda Alharizi, also Judah ben Solomon Harizi or al-Harizi ( he, יהודה בן שלמה אלחריזי, ''Yehudah ben Shelomo al-Harizi'', ar, يحيا بن سليمان بن شاؤل أبو زكريا الحريزي اليهودي من أه� ...
Strack Strack is a German language surname. It may refer to:
* Adriano Strack (born 1992), Brazilian football player
* Charles Strack (1899–1967), American wrestler
* Danny Strack (born 1979), American poet
*Dave Strack (1923–2014), American basketba ...
's on the '' Mishnah'' at Berlin, the whole of rabbinic literature was ignored by European universities.
Honorable exceptions in this respect were furnished in the universities of Oxford (where A. Cowley was sublibrarian of the
Bodleian Library
The Bodleian Library () is the main research library of the University of Oxford, and is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It derives its name from its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley. With over 13 million printed items, it is the second ...
) and
Cambridge
Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge becam ...
(which has produced such scholars as W. H. Lowe, Matthews, and Charles Taylor) in England, and in Columbia University, the University of California, the University of Chicago, Harvard University, and Johns Hopkins University, in America. The Jews had been allowed to work out by themselves the new Jewish science (''Jüdische Wissenschaft''), little attention being paid to that work by others.
In more recent times Christian scholars have given Jewish literature their attention. Abbé Pietro Perreau has done good service by his many articles on the literature of the Jews in the Middle Ages and by the assistance he has given to scholars from the Hebrew manuscripts at Parma;
Martin Hartmann
Martin Hartmann (9 December 1851, Breslau – 5 December 1918, Berlin) was a German orientalist, who specialized in Islamic studies.
In 1875, he received his doctorate at the University of Leipzig as a student of Heinrich Leberecht Fleis ...
has translated and commentated the "Meteḳ Sefatayim" of Immanuel Frances (Berlin, 1894); Thomas Robinson has collected some good material in his ''The Evangelists and the Mishna'' (1859).
August Wünsche
Karl August Wünsche (August 22, 1838, Hainewalde bei Zittau - November 15, 1912, Dresden) was a German Christian Hebraist.
He devoted his attention almost exclusively to rabbinic literature. After completing his commentaries on the ''Book of Hos ...
, in his "Erläuterung der Evangelien aus Midrasch und Talmud" (1878), enlarged the scope of the inquiry begun by Lightfoot; and his translations from the '' Midrash'' opened up the stores of ancient Jewish exegesis. Weber's ''System der Altsynagogalen Palestinischen Theologie'' (1880) was, with all its failings, an honest attempt to understand the theology of the Synagogue, followed by
Wilhelm Bousset
Wilhelm Bousset (3 September 1865, Lübeck – 8 March 1920, Gießen) was a German theologian and New Testament scholar. He was of Huguenot ancestry and a native of Lübeck. His most influential work was ''Kyrios Christos'', an attempt to explain ...
in his ''Religiondes Judenthums im Neutestamentlichen Zeitalter'' (1903).
Dom Pedro II
Don (honorific), Dom PedroII (2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamed "the Magnanimity, Magnanimous" ( pt, O Magnânimo), was the List of monarchs of Brazil, second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. ...
, Emperor of Brazil, should also be mentioned for his publication of Provençal Jewish poetry.
Late 19th century
The
Institutum Judaicum The Institutum Judaicum was a special academic course for Protestant theologians who desired to prepare themselves for missionary work among the Jews.
The first of its kind was founded at the University of Halle, by Professor Callenberg in 1724. ...
Franz Delitzsch
Franz Delitzsch (23 February 1813, in Leipzig – 4 March 1890, in Leipzig) was a German Lutheran theologian and Hebraist. Delitzsch wrote many commentaries on books of the Bible, Jewish antiquities, Biblical psychology, as well as a history o ...
, and a similar society bearing the same name in Berlin and founded by
Hermann Strack
Hermann Leberecht Strack (6 May 1848 – 5 October 1922) was a German Protestant theologian and oriental studies, orientalist; born in Berlin.
Biography
From 1877, Strack was assistant professor of Old Testament exegesis and Semitic languages a ...
, have attempted, by their various publications, to diffuse in the Christian world a knowledge of Jewish writings.
Gustav Dalman
Gustaf Hermann Dalman (9 June 1855 – 19 August 1941) was a German Lutheran theologian and orientalist. He did extensive field work in Palestine before the First World War, collecting inscriptions, poetry, and proverbs. He also collected physica ...
has shown by his philological works on Talmudic grammar and lexicography that he is at home in the rabbinic writings. Hermann Strack in Berlin demands special mention not only for his publications dealing with the literature of the Mishnah and the Talmud, but also on account of the fearless manner in which he has combated
anti-Semitic
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.
Antis ...
prejudice, drawing his material directly from the original sources. Carl Siegfried, in his yearly reports in the ''Theologischer Jahresbericht'', for many years called attention to publications on Jewish subjects, and the mention of such works in the ''Orientalische Bibliographie'' has served to bring them more closely to the attention of Christian scholars. The roll of Christian Hebraists in England includes the names of J. W. Etheridge, the author of a popular ''Introduction to ost-BiblicalHebrew Literature'' (1856);
Thomas Chenery
Thomas William Chenery (1826 – 11 February 1884) was an English scholar and editor of the newspaper ''The Times''. His diplomatic background and choice of capable reporters helped to revive the paper's reputation for international news.
Biogr ...
, translator of ''Legends from the Midrash'' (1877), and editor of Al-Ḥarizi's translation of Ḥariri; and W. H. Lowe, who edited the Palestinian recension of the Mishnah.
In spite, however, of these facts and of the warning given by Lagarde (''Symmicta'', ii. 147; ''Mittheilungen'', ii. 165), that in order to understand the Bible text itself a deep study of the Halakah is necessary, Christian writers on the life of Jesus continue their disregard of the primary sources. This may be seen in Hausrath's ''Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte'' (''Kaufmann Gedenkbuch'', p. 659), and even in Schürer (''Gesch.''), who, though making a great advance upon previous efforts, still relies upon second-hand sources for many of the pictures that he draws (see Abrahams in "J. Q. R." xi. 628).
Adolf von Harnack
Carl Gustav Adolf von Harnack (born Harnack; 7 May 1851 – 10 June 1930) was a Baltic German Lutheran theologian and prominent Church historian. He produced many religious publications from 1873 to 1912 (in which he is sometimes credited ...
, who, in his ''Dogmengeschichte'' (3d ed.), endeavors to do some justice to the rabbis of old, in his ''Wesen des Christenthums'' (1900), sustains potential historical inaccuracies from a perhaps selective review of Jewish literature of the relevant period, possibly most noticeable in a lack of regard for the Jewish literature and history during the most recent eighteen hundred years.
List of Christian Hebraists
The following list of Christian Hebraists includes material taken from the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), compiled upon the basis of Steinschneider's article mentioned in the bibliography below. Christian students of the Bible more generally were not included, as they may be found in other articles.
A
* Aarhus, Peter Sim. (c. 1711; Hafen ?)
* Abicht, Jo. Ge. (d. 1740;
Wittenberg
Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: ''Wittenbarg''; meaning ''White Mountain''; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (''Luther City Wittenberg'')), is the fourth largest town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Wittenberg is situated on the River Elbe, north ...
Alençon
Alençon (, , ; nrf, Alençoun) is a commune in Normandy, France, capital of the Orne department. It is situated west of Paris. Alençon belongs to the intercommunality of Alençon (with 52,000 people).
History
The name of Alençon is firs ...
Groningen
Groningen (; gos, Grunn or ) is the capital city and main municipality of Groningen province in the Netherlands. The ''capital of the north'', Groningen is the largest place as well as the economic and cultural centre of the northern part of t ...
, Dutch Republic)
* Amoena Amalia (wife of Duke Louis; d. 1625, Anhalt)
* Amoena, Louise (princess; 17th century; Anhalt)
* Anna Sophia, Abbess (c. 1658; Quedlinburg)
* Anna (Weissbrucker) Urban (16th century)
* Anchersen, Matthias (d. 1741; Jutland)
* Anslus, Gerebrard (17th century)
* Antonia, Duchess (d. 1679; Württemberg)
*
Arias Montanus
Benito Arias Montano (or Benedictus Arias Montanus; 1527–1598) was a Spanish orientalist and polymath that was active mostly in Spain. He was also editor of the '' Antwerp Polyglot''. He reached the high rank of Royal Chaplain to King Philip II ...
Montpellier
Montpellier (, , ; oc, Montpelhièr ) is a city in southern France near the Mediterranean Sea. One of the largest urban centres in the region of Occitania, Montpellier is the prefecture of the department of Hérault. In 2018, 290,053 people l ...
Urbino
Urbino ( ; ; Romagnol: ''Urbìn'') is a walled city in the Marche region of Italy, south-west of Pesaro, a World Heritage Site notable for a remarkable historical legacy of independent Renaissance culture, especially under the patronage of F ...
Hanau
Hanau () is a town in the Main-Kinzig-Kreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 25 km east of Frankfurt am Main and is part of the Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region. Its station is a major railway junction and it has a port on the ri ...
Frankfurt-an-der-Oder
Frankfurt (Oder), also known as Frankfurt an der Oder (), is a city in the German state of Brandenburg. It has around 57,000 inhabitants, is one of the easternmost cities in Germany, the fourth-largest city in Brandenburg, and the largest German ...
Erfurt
Erfurt () is the capital and largest city in the Central German state of Thuringia. It is located in the wide valley of the Gera river (progression: ), in the southern part of the Thuringian Basin, north of the Thuringian Forest. It sits in ...
Brandenburg
Brandenburg (; nds, Brannenborg; dsb, Bramborska ) is a state in the northeast of Germany bordering the states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony, as well as the country of Poland. With an area of 29,480 squar ...
Gotha
Gotha () is the fifth-largest city in Thuringia, Germany, west of Erfurt and east of Eisenach with a population of 44,000. The city is the capital of the district of Gotha and was also a residence of the Ernestine Wettins from 1640 until the ...
Sir Thomas Browne
Sir Thomas Browne (; 19 October 1605 – 19 October 1682) was an English polymath and author of varied works which reveal his wide learning in diverse fields including science and medicine, religion and the esoteric. His writings display a ...
Johann Franz Buddeus
Johann Franz Buddeus or Budde (sometimes Johannes Franciscus Buddeus; 25 June 1667, Anklam – 19 November 1729, Gotha) was a German Lutheran theologian and philosopher.
Life
Johann Franz Buddeus was a descendant of the French scholar Guill ...
Pegau
Pegau () is a town in the Leipzig district in Saxony, Germany, situated in a fertile plain, on the White Elster, 18 m. S.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz.
It has two Evangelical churches, that of St. Lawrence being a fine Gothic structur ...
Freiburg-im-Breisgau
Freiburg im Breisgau (; abbreviated as Freiburg i. Br. or Freiburg i. B.; Low Alemannic: ''Friburg im Brisgau''), commonly referred to as Freiburg, is an independent city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. With a population of about 230,000 (as o ...
Franeker
Franeker (; fry, Frjentsjer) is one of the eleven historical cities of Friesland and capital of the municipality of Waadhoeke. It is located north of the Van Harinxmakanaal and about 20 km west of Leeuwarden. As of 1 January 2014, it had 1 ...
)
* Clanner (J. G. ?) (c. 1726 ?)
* Samuel Clark (c. 1657; Oxford)
* Clavering, Robert (Bishop; 1671–1747;
Peterborough
Peterborough () is a cathedral city in Cambridgeshire, east of England. It is the largest part of the City of Peterborough unitary authority district (which covers a larger area than Peterborough itself). It was part of Northamptonshire until 1 ...
)
* Clodius, Jo. Chr. (d. 1633; Leipzig)
* Cluverus, Jo. (17th century)
* Cnollen, Adam Andreas (1674–1714; Füth)
* Cnollen, Jos. Nicol. (brother of preceding)
* Coccejus (Koch), Jo. (1603–69;
Leyden
Leiden (; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden has a population of 119,713, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration with ...
Hunga
''Hunga'' is a genus of plants in the family Chrysobalanaceae, described as a genus in 1979.
They are native to New Guinea and New Caledonia.
List of species
# '' Hunga cordata'' Prance - New Caledonia
# '' Hunga gerontogea'' (Schltr.) Prance ...
)
* Danz, Jo. Andr. (1654–1728;
Jena
Jena () is a German city and the second largest city in Thuringia. Together with the nearby cities of Erfurt and Weimar, it forms the central metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants, while the city itself has a popu ...
)
* Dassovius, Theod. (d. 1721;
Wittenberg
Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: ''Wittenbarg''; meaning ''White Mountain''; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (''Luther City Wittenberg'')), is the fourth largest town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Wittenberg is situated on the River Elbe, north ...
; Kiel)
* Delitzsch, Franz (1813–1890; Leipzig
* Diogo Correa Coelho (c. 1990; orn Brazilian
* Disma, P. (c. 1757; Italy)
* Dithmar, Just. Christ. (c. 1706; Dutch Republic?)
* Donatus, Franc. (d. 1635; Rome)
* Dorothea Maria (wife of Duke John; 17th century; Saxe-Weimar)
* Dove, John (c. 1746; London)
* Johannes van den Driesche, "Drusius" (1550–1616; Leyden)
* Drusius, Jo. II. (son of preceding; 1588–1609;
Chichester
Chichester () is a cathedral city and civil parish in West Sussex, England.OS Explorer map 120: Chichester, South Harting and Selsey Scale: 1:25 000. Publisher:Ordnance Survey – Southampton B2 edition. Publishing Date:2009. It is the only c ...
)
* John Duncan (1796 Aberdeen – 26 February 1870)
E
*
Adam Easton
Adam Easton ( – 15 September 1397) was an English cardinal, born at Easton in Norfolk.
He joined the Benedictines at Norwich moving on to the Benedictine Gloucester College, Oxford where he became one of the most outstanding students of hi ...
(
Benedictine
, image = Medalla San Benito.PNG
, caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal
, abbreviation = OSB
, formation =
, motto = (English: 'Pray and Work')
, found ...
; d. 1397; Hereford)
* Ebertus, Jac. (1549–1614; Frankfort-on-the-Oder)
* Ebertus, Theod. (d. 1630; Frankfort-on-the-Oder)
* Alfred Edersheim (1825-1889)
* Eggers, Jo. (c. 1719; Basel; Leyden)
* Einem, Jo. Justus von (c. 1738; Germany)
* Einsiedel, Marg. Sybilla (wife of Conrad Löser; c. 1670; Saxony)
* Eisenmenger, Joh. And. (1654–1704; Heidelberg)
* Elisabeth ( Abbess of Herfort; d. 1680)
* Empereur, Constantin l' (1570–1648; Leyden)
* Etheridge, J. W. (c. 1856; Penzance)
* Eustochium Julia (5th century; Rome)
Cambridge
Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge becam ...
Ulm
Ulm () is a city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Danube on the border with Bavaria. The city, which has an estimated population of more than 126,000 (2018), forms an urban district of its own (german: link=no ...
Freiberg
Freiberg is a university and former mining town in Saxony, Germany. It is a so-called ''Große Kreisstadt'' (large county town) and the administrative centre of Mittelsachsen district.
Its historic town centre has been placed under heritage ...
Halle an der Saale
Halle (Saale), or simply Halle (; from the 15th to the 17th century: ''Hall in Sachsen''; until the beginning of the 20th century: ''Halle an der Saale'' ; from 1965 to 1995: ''Halle/Saale'') is the largest city of the German state of Saxony-An ...
Bremen
Bremen ( Low German also: ''Breem'' or ''Bräm''), officially the City Municipality of Bremen (german: Stadtgemeinde Bremen, ), is the capital of the German state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (''Freie Hansestadt Bremen''), a two-city-state con ...
Ansbach
Ansbach (; ; East Franconian: ''Anschba'') is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is southwest of Nuremberg and north of Munich, on the river Fränkische Rezat, ...
Brescia
Brescia (, locally ; lmo, link=no, label=Eastern Lombard, Lombard, Brèsa ; lat, Brixia; vec, Bressa) is a city and ''comune'' in the region of Lombardy, Northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometers from the lakes ...
Ansbach
Ansbach (; ; East Franconian: ''Anschba'') is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is southwest of Nuremberg and north of Munich, on the river Fränkische Rezat, ...
Bernard de Montfaucon
Dom Bernard de Montfaucon, O.S.B. (; 13 January 1655 – 21 December 1741) was a French Benedictine monk of the Congregation of Saint Maur. He was an astute scholar who founded the discipline of palaeography, as well as being an editor of work ...
(b. 1655, Soulange; d. 1741, Paris)
* Moré, Eugène (c. 1837; France)
* More, Henry (b. 1614, Grantham; d. 1687, Cambridge)
* Morin, Etienne (b. 1625,
Caen
Caen (, ; nrf, Kaem) is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the department of Calvados. The city proper has 105,512 inhabitants (), while its functional urban area has 470,000,Morin, Jean (b. 1591,
Blois
Blois ( ; ) is a commune and the capital city of Loir-et-Cher department, in Centre-Val de Loire, France, on the banks of the lower Loire river between Orléans and Tours.
With 45,898 inhabitants by 2019, Blois is the most populated city of the d ...
; d. 1659, Paris)
* Muhl, Henr. (b. 1666,
Bremen
Bremen ( Low German also: ''Breem'' or ''Bräm''), officially the City Municipality of Bremen (german: Stadtgemeinde Bremen, ), is the capital of the German state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (''Freie Hansestadt Bremen''), a two-city-state con ...
Ingelheim
Ingelheim (), officially Ingelheim am Rhein ( en, Ingelheim upon Rhine), is a town in the Mainz-Bingen district in the Rhineland-Palatinate state of Germany. The town sprawls along the Rhine's west bank. It has been Mainz-Bingen's district seat ...
; d. 1552, Basel)
* Murner, Thomas (Minorite; b. 1475; d. 1537?)
* Alexander Murray (b. 1775 Dunkitterick, Galloway; d. 1813 Edinburgh)
* Myerlin, David Fr. (d. 1778; Frankfort-on-the-Main)
Lucca
Lucca ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the Serchio River, in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea. The city has a population of about 89,000, while its province has a population of 383,957.
Lucca is known as one ...
; d. 1536,
Lyon
Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of th ...
)
* Palmroot, Jo. (c. 1696; Upsala)
* Pasinus, Jos. (b. 1687, Padua; d. 1770, Turin)
* Pastritius, Jo
* Paula, Cornelia (d. 408; Rome)
*
Dom Pedro II
Don (honorific), Dom PedroII (2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamed "the Magnanimity, Magnanimous" ( pt, O Magnânimo), was the List of monarchs of Brazil, second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. ...
Syracuse
Syracuse may refer to:
Places Italy
*Syracuse, Sicily, or spelled as ''Siracusa''
*Province of Syracuse
United States
*Syracuse, New York
**East Syracuse, New York
**North Syracuse, New York
* Syracuse, Indiana
* Syracuse, Kansas
* Syracuse, Mi ...
Lübeck
Lübeck (; Low German also ), officially the Hanseatic City of Lübeck (german: Hansestadt Lübeck), is a city in Northern Germany. With around 217,000 inhabitants, Lübeck is the second-largest city on the German Baltic coast and in the st ...
Bazas
Bazas (; oc-gsc, Vasats) is a commune in the Gironde department in southwestern France.
Geography
Bazas stands on a narrow promontory above the Beuve valley 60 km/37 mi southeast of Bordeaux and 40 km/25 mi southwest of ...
Ansbach
Ansbach (; ; East Franconian: ''Anschba'') is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is southwest of Nuremberg and north of Munich, on the river Fränkische Rezat, ...
Weißenfels
Weißenfels (; often written in English as Weissenfels) is the largest town of the Burgenlandkreis district, in southern Saxony-Anhalt, central Germany. It is situated on the river Saale, approximately south of Halle.
History
Perhaps the fi ...
Zörbig
Zörbig () is a town in the district of Anhalt-Bitterfeld in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is situated approximately 15 km west of Bitterfeld, and 20 km northeast of Halle (Saale). Zörbig is well known for its molasses made from sugar ...
Como
Como (, ; lmo, Còmm, label=Comasco , or ; lat, Novum Comum; rm, Com; french: Côme) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy. It is the administrative capital of the Province of Como.
Its proximity to Lake Como and to the Alps has m ...
Celle
Celle () is a town and capital of the district of Celle, in Lower Saxony, Germany. The town is situated on the banks of the river Aller, a tributary of the Weser, and has a population of about 71,000. Celle is the southern gateway to the Lüne ...
)
* Rhenferdius, Jac. (b. 1654, Mühlheim; d. 1712,
Franeker
Franeker (; fry, Frjentsjer) is one of the eleven historical cities of Friesland and capital of the municipality of Waadhoeke. It is located north of the Van Harinxmakanaal and about 20 km west of Leeuwarden. As of 1 January 2014, it had 1 ...
)
* Ritmeier, Chr. Henr. (c. 1697)
* Rivinius, Tileman Andreas (b. 1601, Halle; d. 1656, Leipzig)
* Robustellus, Jo. (1655; Rome)
* Rohan, Anna, Princess of (c. 1634)
* Rönnow, Magn. (d. 1690)
* Rossi, Giovanni Bernardo de (1742–1831; Parma)
Nuremberg
Nuremberg ( ; german: link=no, Nürnberg ; in the local East Franconian dialect: ''Nämberch'' ) is the second-largest city of the German state of Bavaria after its capital Munich, and its 518,370 (2019) inhabitants make it the 14th-largest ...
)
* Schoettgen, Jo. Christ. (1687–1751)
* Scholl, J. C. F. (Tübingen)
* Schotanus, Christ. (b. 1603, Scheng; d. 1671, Franeker)
* Schramm, Jonas Conr. (c. 1700; Helmstädt)
* Schreckenfuchs, Erasmus Oswald (1511–75; Tübingen)
* Schroeder, Jo. Joachim (1680–1756; Marburg)
* Schulten, Albert (1686–1750; Dutch Republic)
* Schulten, Car. (c. 1725; Lund)
* Schulten, Heinrich Albert (1749–93; Dutch Republic)
* Schulten, Jo. Jac. (1716–78; Dutch Republic)
* Schurman, Anna Maria van (1607–78; Altona)
* Schwenter, Daniel (1585–1636; Nuremberg)
* Scotus, Jo. Duns (d. 1308, Scotland)
* Sebastianus, Aug. Nouzanus (c. 1532; Marburg)
* Seidel, Casp. (c. 1638; Hamburg)
* Seiferheld, J. L. (18th century)
* Seyfried, Christ. (c. 1664)
* Seyfried, Henr. (c. 1663; Altdorf)
* Sgambatus, Scipio (c. 1703; Italy)
* Sheringham, Robert (b. 1602,
Guestwick
Guestwick is a villageOS Explorer Map 238 Dereham & Aylsham. and a civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. The village is south-west of Cromer, north-west of Norwich and north-east of London. The village lies west of the nearby town o ...
; d. 1678, Cambridge)
* Siegfried, Carl (b. 1830, Magdeburg; d. Jena)
* Smith, Thomas (b. 1638, London; d. 1710)
* Sommer, Gottfr. Chris. (c. 1734; Gotha)
* Sonneschmid, Jo. Just. (c. 1719; Jena?)
* Spalding, G. L. (b. 1762, Barth; d. 1811, Friedrichsfelde)
* Sprecher, Jo. Died. (c. 1703; Helmstädt)
* Springer, Daniel (1656–1708; Breslau)
* Staemmen, Christoph. van (c. 1661; Preza-Holsatus?)
* Starke, Heinrich Benedict (b. 1672, Engelen; d. 1717, Leipsic)
* Steinmetz, Joh. Andr. (b. 1689, Gr. Knicymtzd; d. 1762)
* Strack, Herrmann L. (living; Berlin)
* Stridzberg, Nic. H. (c. 1731; Lund)
* Struvius, Jo. Jul. (c. 1697; Germany)
* Stucki, Johann Wilhelm (b. 1542, Zurich; d. 1607, Zurich)
* Surenhuys, Willem (d. 1729; Amsterdam)
* Svetonio, Agost. (Italy)
Charles Taylor (Hebraist)
Charles Taylor (1840–1908) was an English Christian Hebraist.
Life
Taylor was born on 27 May 1840 in London. He was educated at King's College School, and St. John's College, Cambridge, where graduated BA as 9th wrangler in 1862 and became a ...
Immanuel Tremellius
Immanuel Tremellius ( it, Giovanni Emmanuele Tremellio; 1510 – 9 October 1580) was an Italian Jewish convert to Christianity. He was known as a leading Hebraist and Bible translator.
Life
He was born at Ferrara and educated at the University o ...
* Ulmann, Jo. (c. 1663; Strasburg)
* Urbanus Henricus Rhegius (
Urbanus Rhegius
Urbanus Henricus Rhegius or Urban Rieger (May 1489, in Langenargen – 23 May 1541, in Celle) was a Protestant Reformer who was active both in Northern and Southern Germany in order to promote ''Lutheran unity'' in the Holy Roman Empire. He ...
) (c. 1535;
Celle
Celle () is a town and capital of the district of Celle, in Lower Saxony, Germany. The town is situated on the banks of the river Aller, a tributary of the Weser, and has a population of about 71,000. Celle is the southern gateway to the Lüne ...
Dordrecht
Dordrecht (), historically known in English as Dordt (still colloquially used in Dutch, ) or Dort, is a city and municipality in the Western Netherlands, located in the province of South Holland. It is the province's fifth-largest city after Ro ...
; d. 1633, Amsterdam)
* Voysin ( Vicinus), Jos. de (c. 1635; Paris)
Gustav Georg Zeltner
Gustav Georg Zeltner (16 September 1672, in Hiltpoltstein – 20 July 1738, in Poppenreuth) was a Lutheran theologian. Zeltner wrote numerous theological and historical writings.
Life
From 1689 to 1694 he studied philosophy and theology at the ...
(1672–1738; Altdorf)
See also
*
Hebraism
Hebraism �hiːbreɪz(ə)mis a lexical item, usage or trait characteristic of the Hebrew language. By successive extension it is often applied to the Jewish people, their faith, national ideology or culture.
Idiomatic Hebrew
Hebrew has many idio ...
Richard Gottheil
Richard James Horatio Gottheil (13 October 1862 – 22 May 1936) was an English American Semitic scholar, Zionist, and founding father of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity.
Biography
He was born in Manchester, England, but moved to the United States ...
, url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=H&artid=476
The bibliography of that article is below:
*
Moritz Steinschneider
Moritz Steinschneider (30 March 1816, Prostějov, Moravia, Austrian Empire – 24 January 1907, Berlin) was a Moravian bibliographer and Orientalist. He received his early instruction in Hebrew from his father, Jacob Steinschneider ( 1782; ...
, ''Christliche Hebraisten'', in Zeit. für Hebr. Bibl. i. 50 et seq.;
* Gesenius, ''Gesch. der Hebr. Sprache'', passim, Leipsic, 1815;
* Zunz, Z. G. pp. 1 et seq. (re-published in G. S. i. 41 et seq.);
* L. Geiger, ''Studium der Hebraisch Sprache in Deutschland'', Breslau, 1870;
* J. Perles, ''Beiträge zur Geschichte der Hebraisch und Aramaisch Studien'', pp. 154 et seq.;
* Meyer Kayserling, ''Les Hébraisants Chrétiens'', in R. E. J. xx. 264 et seq.;
* Kaufmann, ''Die Vertretung der Jüden Wissenschaft an den Universitäten'', in ''Monatsschrift'', xxxix. 145 et seq.;
* S. A. Hirsch, ''Early English Hebraists'', in J. Q. R. xii. 34 et seq.;
* Kauffmann, Jacob Mantino, in R. E. J. xxvii. 30 et seq. (comp. J. Q. R. ix. 500);
* E. Sachau, ''Orientalische Philologie, in Die Deutschen Universitäten'', p. 520, Berlin, 1893;
* William Rosenau, ''Semitic Studies in American Colleges'', Chicago, 1896;
*
Moritz Steinschneider
Moritz Steinschneider (30 March 1816, Prostějov, Moravia, Austrian Empire – 24 January 1907, Berlin) was a Moravian bibliographer and Orientalist. He received his early instruction in Hebrew from his father, Jacob Steinschneider ( 1782; ...
, ''Hebr. Bibl.'' xx. 65 et seq.;
* Kayserling, ''A Princess as Hebraist'', in J. Q. R. ix. 509.G.
Hebraists
A Hebraist is a specialist in Jewish, Hebrew and Hebraic studies. Specifically, British and German scholars of the 18th and 19th centuries who were involved in the study of Hebrew language and literature were commonly known by this designation, a ...