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Chinese salvationist religions or Chinese folk religious sects are a Chinese religious tradition characterised by a concern for
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its ...
(moral fulfillment) of the person and the society.; ''passim'' They are distinguished by
egalitarianism Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hu ...
, a founding charismatic person often informed by a
divine revelation In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Background Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
, a specific
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
written in
holy text Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual pra ...
s, a
millenarian Millenarianism or millenarism (from Latin , "containing a thousand") is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming fundamental transformation of society, after which "all things will be changed". Millenarian ...
eschatology Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that nega ...
and a voluntary path of salvation, an embodied experience of the
numinous Numinous () is a term derived from the Latin ''numen'', meaning "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring."Collins English Dictionary -7th ed. - 2005 The term was given its present sense by the German theologian and ph ...
through healing and self-cultivation, and an expansive orientation through evangelism and philanthropy. Some scholars consider these religions a single phenomenon, and others consider them the fourth great Chinese religious category alongside the well-established
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
,
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
and
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
. Generally these religions focus on the worship of the universal
God In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
(
Shangdi Shangdi (), also written simply, "Emperor" (), is the Chinese term for "Supreme Deity" or "Highest Deity" in the theology of the classical texts, especially deriving from Shang theology and finding an equivalent in the later '' Tian'' ("Heave ...
), represented as either male, female, or genderless, and regard their holy patriarchs as embodiments of God.


Terminology and definition

"Chinese salvationist religions" ( ''jiùdù zōngjiào'') is a contemporary neologism coined as a
sociological Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation and ...
category and gives prominence to folk religious sects' central pursuit that is the
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its ...
of the individual and the society, in other words the moral fulfillment of individuals in reconstructed communities of sense. Chinese scholars traditionally describe them as "folk religious sects" ( ''mínjiān zōngjiào'', ''mínjiān jiàomén'' or ''mínjiān jiàopài'') or "folk beliefs" ( ''mínjiān xìnyǎng''). They are distinct from the common indigenous religion of the Han Chinese consisting in the worship of gods and ancestors, although in English language there is a terminological confusion between the two. The 20th-century expression of these folk religious movements has been studied under the definition of "redemptive societies" ( ''jiùshì tuántǐ''), coined by scholar
Prasenjit Duara Prasenjit Duara ( as, অসমীয়া: প্রসেনজিৎ দুৱৰা Chinese name: ), originally from Assam, India, a historian of China, is Oscar Tang Family Distinguished Professor, Department of History, Duke University, aft ...
. A collective name that has been in use possibly since the late Qing dynasty is ''huìdàomén'' ( "churches, ways and gates"), as their names interchangeably use the terms ''huì'' ( "church", "society", "association", "congregation"; when referring to their corporate form), ''dào'' ( "way") or ''mén'' ( "gate ay, "door"). Their congregations and points of worship are usually called ''táng'' ( "church", "hall") or ''tán'' ( "altar"). Western scholars often mistakenly identify them as "
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
" churches. The
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
ese religions of '' Minh Đạo'' and
Caodaism Caodaism ( vi, Đạo Cao Đài, Chữ Hán: ) is a monotheistic syncretic new religious movement officially established in the city of Tây Ninh in southern Vietnam in 1926. The full name of the religion is (The Great Faith or theThird Uni ...
emerged from the same tradition of Chinese folk religious movements.


Secret religions

A category overlapping with that of the movements of salvation is that of the "secret societies" ( ''mìmì shèhuì'', or ''mìmì jiéshè''), religious communities of initiatory and secretive character, including rural militias and fraternal organisations which became very popular in the early republican period, and often labeled as "
heretical Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
doctrines" ( ''zōngjiào yìduān''). Recent scholarship has begun to use the label "secret sects" ( ''mìmì jiàomén'') to distinguish the peasant "secret societies" with a positive dimension of the Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, from the negatively viewed "secret societies" of the early republic that became instruments of anti-revolutionary forces (the
Guomindang The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Taiw ...
or Japan).


Origin and history

Many of these religions are traced to the
White Lotus The White Lotus () is a syncretic religious and political movement which forecasts the imminent advent of the "King of Light" (), i.e., the future Buddha Maitreya. As White Lotus sects developed, they appealed to many Han Chinese who found sola ...
tradition ("Chinese Maternism", as mentioned by Philip Clart) that was already active in the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
; others claim a
Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Tao ...
legacy and are based on the recovery of ancient scriptures attributed to important
immortals Immortality is the ability to live forever, or eternal life. Immortal or Immortality may also refer to: Film * ''The Immortals'' (1995 film), an American crime film * ''Immortality'', an alternate title for the 1998 British film '' The Wisdom of ...
such as
Lü Dongbin Lü Dongbin (796 CE – 1016 CE) is a legendary Chinese scholar and poet said to have lived during the Tang Dynasty. Whether he actually lived the two hundred and twenty years cannot be determined. Elevated to the status of an immortal in the ...
and
Zhang Sanfeng Zhang Sanfeng (also spelled Zhang San Feng, Chang San-Feng) refers to a legendary Chinese Taoist who many believe invented T'ai chi ch'üan. However, other sources point to early versions of Tai Chi predating Sanfeng. He was purported to hav ...
, and have contributed to the popularisation of ''
neidan Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. Also known as Jindan ...
''; other ones are distinctively
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
and advocate the realisation of a "great commonwealth" (''datong'' ) on a world scale, as dreamt of in the
Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Book ...
. Some scholars even find influences from
Manichaeism Manichaeism (; in New Persian ; ) is a former major religionR. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 founded in the 3rd century AD by the Parthian Empire, Parthian ...
, Mohism and shamanic traditions. In the
Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peop ...
and
Qing dynasties The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
many folk religious movements were outlawed by the imperial authorities as "evil religions" ( ''xiéjiào''). With the collapse of the Qing state in 1911 the sects enjoyed an unprecedented period of freedom and thrived, and many of them were officially recognised as religious groups by the early republican government. The founding of the People's Republic in 1949 saw them suppressed once again, although since the 1990s and 2000s the climate was relaxed and some of them have received some form of official recognition. In
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
all the still existing restrictions were rescinded in the 1980s. Folk religious movements began to rapidly revive in mainland China in the 1980s, and now if conceptualised as a single group they are said to have the same number of followers of the five state-sanctioned religions of China taken together. Scholars and government officials have been discussing to systematise and unify this large base of religious organisations; in 2004 the State Administration of Religious Affairs created a department for the management of folk religions. In the late 2015 a step was made at least for those of them with a Confucian identity, with the foundation of the Holy Confucian Church of China which aims to unite in a single body all Confucian religious groups. Many of the movements of salvation of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism, advocating an "Eastern solution to the problems of the modern world", or even interacting with the modern discourse of an
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
n-centered universal civilisation.


Geography and diffusion

The Chinese folk religious movements of salvation are mostly concentrated in northern and northeastern China, although with a significant influence reaching the
Yangtze River Delta The Yangtze Delta or Yangtze River Delta (YRD, or simply ) is a triangle-shaped megalopolis generally comprising the Wu Chinese-speaking areas of Shanghai, southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang. The area lies in the heart of the Jiangnan reg ...
since the 16th century. The northern provinces have been a fertile ground for the movements of salvation for a number of reasons: ① firstly, popular religious movements were active in the region already in the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
, and they deeply penetrated local society; ② secondly, northern provinces are characterised by social mobility around the capital and weak traditional social structure, thus folk religious movements of salvation fulfill the demand of individual searching for new forms of community and social network. According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012, approximately 2.2% of the population of China, which is around 30 million people, claim to be members of folk religious sects. The actual number of followers may be higher, about the same as the number of members of the five state-sanctioned religions of China if counted together. In Taiwan, recognised folk religious movements of salvation gather approximately 10% of the population as of the mid-2000s.


Chronological record of major sects


Earliest influences ( Yuan, 1277–1377)

*
White Lotus The White Lotus () is a syncretic religious and political movement which forecasts the imminent advent of the "King of Light" (), i.e., the future Buddha Maitreya. As White Lotus sects developed, they appealed to many Han Chinese who found sola ...
( ''Báiliánjiào'') * Maitreya teachings ( ''Mílèjiào'')


Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peop ...
(1367–1644) and Qing (1644–1911)

* Baguadao ( "Way of the Eight Trigrams") networks * Denghua ( "Flower of Light") sect * Hongyang ( "Great Sun") or Hunyuan ( "Original Undetermined") sect * Huangtiandao ( "Way of the Yellow Sky") or Xuangu ( "Dark Drum") sect *
Luo teaching Luodao (罗道 "Way of Luo") or Luoism (罗教), originally Wuweiism (无为教), refers to a Chinese folk religious tradition, a wide range of sect organisations flourishing over the last five hundred years, which trace their origins back to the ...
( ''Luójiào'', "Luo (Menghong)'s tradition"): Patriarch Luo was reportedly polemical towards the Bailian, Maitreyan, and Huangtian sects ** Dacheng ( "Great Vehicle") or Yuandun ( "Sudden Stillness") sect, the eastern branch of Luoism *** Sects requiring fasting ( ''zhāijiāo''), including
Xiantiandao The Xiantiandao (, or "Way of the Primordial"; Vietnamese: ', Japanese: '), also simply Tiandao (; Vietnamese: ', Japanese: ') is one of the most productive currents of Chinese folk religious sects such as the White Lotus Sect, characterised by ...
dubbed the Qinglian ( "Black lue, or GreenLotus") sect during the Qing **** Mohou Yizhu ( "Final Salvation") sect founded by
Wang Jueyi Wang Jueyi ( Wáng Juéyī) was the founder of the Yiguan Dao "Unity Sect" of Taoism and claimed the 15th Taoist patriarchate () Life Wang Jueyi was born Wang Ximeng () in 1821 in Qingzhou under the Qing Dynasty. On account of his orphanhood in ...
in the 1870s, renamed Yiguandao in 1905 ** Dacheng teaching of Mount Jizu ( ''Jīzúshān dàchéngjiào''), a western branch of Luoism founded by Zhang Baotai in
Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...
* Church of the Highest Supreme ( ''Tàishànghuì'') * Church of the Heaven and the Earth ( ''Tiāndìhuì'') or Tiandimen ( "Gate of the Heaven and the Earth") *
Sanyi teaching The Harmonious Church of the Three-in-One (), or Sanyiism () and Xiaism (), is a Chinese folk religious sect of Confucian character founded in the 16th century by Lin Zhao'en, in Putian.Seiwert, 2003. p. 343 In 2011, it was officially recognised ...
( "Three-One"), founded by Li Zhao'en on the base of Confucian principles


Republic of China (1912–49)

* Zaili teaching ( ''Zàilǐjiào'', "Abiding Principle")—registered in 1913 * Daode Xueshe ( "Community for the Study of the Way and its Virtue")—1916 *
Xiantiandao The Xiantiandao (, or "Way of the Primordial"; Vietnamese: ', Japanese: '), also simply Tiandao (; Vietnamese: ', Japanese: ') is one of the most productive currents of Chinese folk religious sects such as the White Lotus Sect, characterised by ...
( "Way of the Former Heaven") networks ** Shengdao ( "Holy Way"), best known by its incorporate name of Tongshanshe ( "Community of the Goodness")—1917 ** Guiyidao (, "Way of the Return to the One"), best known by its corporate name of School of the Way of the Return to the One or simply School of the Way ( ''Dàoyuàn'')—1921-27 **
Yiguandao Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (),; ko, 일관도, Ilgwando; th, อนุตตรธรรม, . meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become C ...
( "Consistent Way")—registered in 1947 *** Haizidao ( "Way of the Children")—branched out in the 1980s *** Miledadao ( "Great Way of Maitreya")—branched out in the 1980s **
Dragon Flower Church of the Heart-bound Heavenly Way The Holy Dragon Flower Church of the Heart-bound Heavenly Way (一心天道龙华圣教会 ''Yīxīn tiāndào lónghuá shèng jiàohuì''), also known simply as Yixin Tiandao (一心天道 "Heart-bound Heavenly Way"), Yizhendao (一真道 "Way of ...
( ''Yīxīn Tiāndào Lónghuá Huì'')—1932 ** Yuanmingdao ( "Way of the Bright Circle") ** Yaochidao ( "Way of the Jasper Lake") ** Guigendao ( "Way of the Return to the Root") * Jiushi ( "Life Healing") sect, also known by its corporate name Wushanshe ( "Community of the Awakening to the Goodness")—1919 * Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue ( ''Wànguó Dàodéhuì'')—1921 * Jiugongdao (, "Way of the Nine Palaces")—1926 * Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue ( ''Tiāndé shèngjiào'')—early form of Tiandiism, recognised in 1930 *
Church of Virtue Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship * C ...
( ''Déjiàohuì'')—started in 1945 * Zhenkongdao ( "Way of the True Emptiness")—1948 * Confucian Church ( ''Kǒngjiàohuì'')—founded by
Kang Youwei Kang Youwei (; Cantonese: ''Hōng Yáuh-wàih''; 19March 185831March 1927) was a prominent political thinker and reformer in China of the late Qing dynasty. His increasing closeness to and influence over the young Guangxu Emperor spar ...
* Xixinshe ( "Community of the Pure Heart")—another organisation of Kang Youwei's idea of a Confucian church *
Yellow Sand Society The Yellow Sand Society (), also known as Yellow Way Society (), and Yellow Gate Society (), was a rural secret society and folk religious sect in northern China during the 19th and 20th century. Inspired by millenarian ideas, the movement la ...
—rural secret society and millenarian sect


Late 20th century

* Xuanyuandao ( "Way of the Mysterious Origin")—founded in 1952 * Confucian Way of the Gods ( ''Rúzōng Shénjiào'')—started in 1853, formally established in 1979 *
Lord of Universe Church Tiandiism is a group of Chinese salvationist sects, namely the Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue and the Lord of Universe Church, which emerged respectively from the teachings of Xiao Changming and Li Yujie, disseminated in the early 20th centur ...
( ''Tiāndìjiào'')—branch of Tiandiism established in 1979 *
Qigong ''Qigong'' (), ''qi gong'', ''chi kung'', ''chi 'ung'', or ''chi gung'' () is a system of coordinated body-posture and movement, breathing, and meditation used for the purposes of health, spirituality, and martial-arts training. With roots in ...
( "Cultivation of the Spirit") ** Falungong ( "Cultivation of the Wheel of Law") * Zishen Nation () — led by the self-proclaimed emperor Li Guangchang, the sect ruled a small area in
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , Chinese postal romanization, also romanized as Chekiang) is an East China, eastern, coastal Provinces of China, province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable citie ...
from 1981 to 1986


21st century

*
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
religious groups in China mainland (
Confucian church The Confucian church ( or ) is a Confucianism, Confucian religious and social institution of the Church (congregation), congregational type. It was first proposed by Kang Youwei (1858–1927) near the end of the 19th century, as a state religion ...
es) * Weixinism ( ''Wéixīnjiào'', "Only Heart") or "Holy Church of the Heart-Only" ( ''Wéixīn Shèngjiào'')


Other sects

* Changshandao * Church of Maitreya the King of the Universe ( ''Yǔzhòu mílè huáng jiào'') * Dadao Hui ( "Church of the Big Sword") * Datong Hui ( "Church of the Great Harmony") * Dayiism ( ''Dàyì jiào'', "Great Simplicity") * Dongyue Hui * Gengshen Hui * Guixiangdao ( "Way of the Kneeling to Incense") * Holy Church of the Middle Flower ( ''Zhōnghuá shèngjiào'') * Hongsanism ( ''Hóngsān jiào'', "Red Three") * Huangjidao ( "Way of the Imperial Pole") * Huangxiandao ( "Way of the Yellow Immortal") *
Huazhaidao Huazhaidao (华斋道 "Way of Flowers and Fasting") is a Chinese folk religious sect of Henan that as of the 1980s was a proscribed religion in China as testified by the arrest of various Communist Party members who joined the sect in those years. ...
( "Way of Flowers and Fasting") * Jiugendao ( "Way of the Old Source") * Laojundao ( "Way of the Venerable Master") * Laorendao ( "Way of the Venerable Men") * Mount Li Maternism ( ''Líshān Lǎomǔ jiào'') * Puhuamen ( "Gate of the Universal Change") * Pujidao ( "Way of the Universal Help") * Puduism ( ''Pǔdù jiào'', "Universal Judgement"), Pududao ( "Way of the Universal Judgment") * Qixingism * Qiugongdao * Renxuehaodao ( "Way of Men Learning the Goodness") * Sanfengdao ( "Way of the Three Peaks") * Shengxiandao ( "Way of the Sages and the Immortals") * Shenmendao ( "Way of the Godly Gate") * Sifangdao ( "Way of the Four Manifestations") * Suibiandao * Tianguangdao ( "Way of the Heavenly Light") * Tianhuadao ( "Way of the Heavenly Flower") * Tianmingdao ( "Way of the Heavenly Bright") * Tianxianmiaodao ( "Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals") * Wanquandao ( "Way of the Endless Whole" or "Surefire Way") * Wugong Hui * Xiaodao Hui ( "Church of the Small Sword") * Xuanmen Zhenzong (, "True School of the Mysterious Gate") * Yinjiezhi Hui * Yuanshuai Hui * Yuxumen ( "Gate of the Jade Vacuity") * Zhongfangdao ( "Way of the Middle Abode") * Zhongjiao Daoyi Hui * Zhongyongdao ( "Way of the Golden Mean") * Zhongxiao Tianfu ( "Heavenly House of Filial Loyalty") * Zhutian Hui * Zishenguo ("Zishen nation")


See also

* Ancestor veneration in China *
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
*
Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
* Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia *
Chinese Manichaeism Chinese Manichaeism or ‘Religion of Light’ known as Monijiao ( zh, t=摩尼教, w=Mo2-ni2 Chiao4, p=Móníjiào, l=religion of Moni) or Mingjiao ( zh, t=明教, w=Ming2-Chiao4, p=Míngjiào, links=no, l=religion of light or 'bright religion') ...
*
Chinese religions of fasting The Chinese religions of fasting () are a subgroup of the Chinese salvationist religions. Their name refers to the strict vegetarian fasting diet that believers follow. This subgroup originated as the ''Lǎoguān zhāijiào'' (老官齋教 "Venera ...
*
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
Confucian church The Confucian church ( or ) is a Confucianism, Confucian religious and social institution of the Church (congregation), congregational type. It was first proposed by Kang Youwei (1858–1927) near the end of the 19th century, as a state religion ...
*
Japanese new religions Japanese new religions are new religious movements established in Japan. In Japanese, they are called or . Japanese scholars classify all religious organizations founded since the middle of the 19th century as "new religions"; thus, the term refe ...
, some of which are related to Chinese sects * Maitreya teachings *
Northeast China folk religion Northeast China folk religion is the variety of Chinese folk religion of northeast China, characterised by distinctive cults original to Hebei and Shandong, transplanted and adapted by the Han Chinese settlers of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang ( ...
*
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
Taoist schools Taoism is a East Asian religion founded in ancient China with many schools or denominations, of which none occupies a position of orthodoxy and co-existed peacefully. Taoist branches usually build their identity around a set of scriptures, tha ...
*
White Lotus The White Lotus () is a syncretic religious and political movement which forecasts the imminent advent of the "King of Light" (), i.e., the future Buddha Maitreya. As White Lotus sects developed, they appealed to many Han Chinese who found sola ...
; In Vietnam *
Caodaism Caodaism ( vi, Đạo Cao Đài, Chữ Hán: ) is a monotheistic syncretic new religious movement officially established in the city of Tây Ninh in southern Vietnam in 1926. The full name of the religion is (The Great Faith or theThird Uni ...
* Minh Đạo ; In Indonesia * Confucian Religion in Indonesia ; In Philippines * Bell Church


References


Citations


Sources

* * * ** List first published in: * * * Ownby, David (2016). “Redemptive Societies in the Twentieth Century.” In ''Modern Chinese Religion II 1850–2015'', edited by Vincent Goossaert, Jan Kiely and John Lagerwey, Leiden: Brill, vol. 2, 685–727. * * * * * * * * {{religion topics Chinese secret societies Chinese folk religion Religion in China Religion in Taiwan East Asian religions