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The Chinese Rites controversy () was a dispute among
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD * Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
missionaries over the religiosity of Confucianism and Chinese rituals during the 17th and 18th centuries. The debate discussed whether Chinese ritual practices of honoring family ancestors and other formal Confucian and Chinese imperial rites qualified as religious rites and were thus incompatible with Catholic belief. The Jesuits argued that these Chinese rites were secular rituals that were compatible with Christianity, within certain limits, and should thus be tolerated. The Dominicans and
Franciscans , image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg , image_size = 200px , caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans , abbreviation = OFM , predecessor = , ...
, however, disagreed and reported the issue to Rome. Rome's Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith sided with the Dominicans in 1645 by condemning the Chinese rites based on their brief. However, the same congregation sided with the Jesuits in 1656, thereby lifting the ban. It was one of the many disputes between the Jesuits and the Dominicans in China and elsewhere in
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, including
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
and
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
. The conflict between the Jesuits and their opponents took on a historical dimension, with the former insisting that Europeans and the Chinese had a shared history, which was taken to legitimise the Jesuit "accommodation" of Chinese rites and names for the Christian God. The controversy embroiled leading European universities; the Qing dynasty's Kangxi Emperor and several
pope The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...
s (including Clement XI and Clement XIV) considered the case; the offices of the Holy See also intervened. Near the end of the 17th century, many Dominicans and Franciscans had shifted their positions in agreeing with the Jesuits' opinion, but Rome disagreed. Clement XI banned the rites in 1704. In 1742, Benedict XIV reaffirmed the ban and forbade debate. In 1939, after two centuries, the Holy See re-assessed the issue. Pius XII issued a decree on 8 December 1939, authorizing Chinese Catholics to observe the ancestral rites and participate in Confucius-honoring ceremonies. The general principle of sometimes admitting native traditions even into the liturgy of the church, provided that such traditions harmonize with the true and authentic spirit of the liturgy, was proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).


Background


Early adaptation to local customs

Unlike the American landmass, which had been conquered by military force by Spain and Portugal, European missionaries encountered in Asia united, literate societies that were as yet untouched by European influence or national endeavor. Alessandro Valignano, Visitor of the Society of Jesus in Asia, was one of the first Jesuits to argue, in the case of
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
, for an adaptation of Christian customs to the societies of Asia, through his ''Résolutions'' and ''Cérémonial''.


Matteo Ricci's policy of accommodation

In China, Matteo Ricci reused the ''Cérémonial'' and adapted it to the Chinese context. At one point the Jesuits even started to wear the gown of Buddhist monks, before adopting the more prestigious silk gown of Chinese literati. In particular, Matteo Ricci's Christian views on Confucianism and Chinese rituals, often called the "" (), were followed by Jesuit missionaries in China and Korea. In a decree signed on 23 March 1656, Pope Alexander VII accepted practices "favorable to Chinese customs", reinforcing 1615 decrees which accepted the usage of the Chinese language in liturgy, a notable exception to the contemporary Latin Catholic discipline which had generally forbidden the use of local languages. In the 1659 instructions given by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (known as the ''Propaganda Fidei'') to new missionaries to Asia, provisions were clearly made to the effect that adapting to local customs and respecting the habits of the countries to be evangelized was paramount:


Reception in China

The Jesuit order was successful in penetrating China and serving at the Imperial court. They impressed the Chinese with their knowledge of European
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
and mechanics, and in fact ran the Imperial Observatory. The Kangxi Emperor was at first friendly to the Jesuit Missionaries working in China. Their accurate methods allowed him to successfully predict eclipses, one of his ritual duties. He was grateful for the services they provided to him, in the areas of
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
, diplomacy and artillery manufacture. Jesuit translators Jean-François Gerbillon and
Thomas Pereira Thomas Pereira or Tomás Pereira (1 November 1645 – 1708), also known as Tomé Pereira, was a Portuguese Jesuit, mathematician and scientist who worked as a missionary in Qing China. Pereira was born in Vila Nova de Famalicão. He arrived i ...
took part in the negotiations of the
Treaty of Nerchinsk The Treaty of Nerchinsk () of 1689 was the first treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing dynasty of China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Range and kept the area between the Argun River ...
in 1689, where they assisted with translation. The Jesuits made an important contribution to the Empire's military, with the diffusion of European artillery technology, and they directed the castings of cannons of various calibers. The Kangxi Emperor also retained several Jesuits in his court as scientists and artists. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits had made many converts. They in turn were impressed by the knowledge and intelligence of the Han Chinese Confucian scholar elite, and adapted to their ancient Chinese intellectual lifestyle. In 1692, Kangxi issued an edict of toleration of Christianity ( or ). This edict enabled Christianity to be perceived by the state with "positive neutrality" and acceptable in the eyes of Confucian orthodoxy.


Controversy

The Jesuits gradually developed and adopted a policy of accommodation on the issue of Chinese rites. The Chinese scholar elite were attached to Confucianism, while
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
and Daoism were in decline and losing patronage, Confucianism was arguably at its golden age during this period of Chinese History, even a rich urban class of merchants pursued it. Despite this, all three provided the framework of both state and home life. Part of Confucian and Taoist practices involved veneration of one's ancestors. Besides the Jesuits, other religious orders such as the Dominicans,
Franciscan , image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg , image_size = 200px , caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans , abbreviation = OFM , predecessor = , ...
s, and Augustinians started missionary work in China during the 17th century, often coming from the Spanish colony of the
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
. Contrary to the Jesuits, they refused any adaptation to local customs and wished to apply in China the same '' tabula rasa'' principle they had applied in other places, and were horrified by the practices of the Jesuits. They ignited a heated controversy and brought it to Rome. They raised three main points of contention: * Determination of the Chinese word for "God", which was generally accepted as 天主 '' Tiānzhǔ'' (Lord of Heaven), while Jesuits were willing to allow Chinese Christians to use 天 ''
Tiān ''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, " ...
'' (Heaven) or 上帝 '' Shàngdì'' (Lord Above / Supreme Emperor) * Prohibition of Christians from participating in the seasonal rites for Confucius. * Prohibition of Christians from using of tablets with the forbidden inscription "site of the soul", and from following the Chinese rites for the ancestor worship. In Rome, the Jesuits tried to argue that these "Chinese Rites" were civic rituals, rather than religious, and that converts should be allowed to continue to participate. They maintained that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the Emperor and departed ancestors were civil in nature and therefore not incompatible with Catholicism, while their opponents argued that these kinds of worship were an expression of native religion and thus incompatible with Catholic beliefs.


Pope Clement XI's decree

Pope Clement XI condemned the Chinese rites and Confucian rituals, and outlawed any further discussion in 1704, with the anti-rites decree ''Cum Deus optimus'' of 20 November 1704. It forbade the use of "''
Tiān ''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, " ...
''" and "'' Shàngdì''", while approving '' Tiānzhǔ'' ('Lord of Heaven'). In 1705, the Pope sent a Papal Legate to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate to him the interdiction of Chinese rites. The mission, led by
Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (December 21, 1668 – June 10, 1710), also known as Carlo Tommaso, was a papal legate and cardinal to the East Indies and China. Biography Tournon was born of a noble Savoyard family at Turin on 21 December 1 ...
, communicated the prohibition of Chinese rites in January 1707, but as a result was banished to Macao. Further, the Pope issued the 19 March 1715 Papal bull ''Ex illa die'' which officially condemned the Chinese rites: Clement XI's decree was reiterated by Benedict XIV in his 1742 papal bull ''Ex quo singulari''. Benedict demanded that missionaries in China take an oath forbidding them to discuss the issue again.


Imperial ban and papal suppression

In the early 18th century, Rome's challenge to the Chinese Rites led to the expulsion of Catholic missionaries from China. In July 1706, the Papal Legate
Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (December 21, 1668 – June 10, 1710), also known as Carlo Tommaso, was a papal legate and cardinal to the East Indies and China. Biography Tournon was born of a noble Savoyard family at Turin on 21 December 1 ...
angered the Kangxi Emperor, who issued an order that all missionaries, in order to obtain an imperial permit (piao) to stay in China, would have to declare that they would follow ' the rules of Matteo Ricci'. In 1721, the Kangxi Emperor disagreed with Clement's decree and banned Christian missions in China. In the ''Decree of Kangxi'', he stated, Chinese converts were also involved in the controversy through letters of protest, books, pamphlets, etc. The Controversy debate was most intense between a group of Christian literati and a Catholic Bishop (named Charles Maigrot de Crissey) in Fujian province, with the Chinese group of converts supporting the Jesuits and the bishop supported by less accommodating Iberian mendicants (Dominicans and Franciscans). In 1724 the Yongzheng Emperor () proscribed the Heavenly Lord sect (''Tianzhu jiao'', the name given Catholicism in China in that period). Persecution steadily increased during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor. While the Yongzheng Emperor appreciated and admired the Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione's artwork and western technologies, he also reinforced anti-Christian policies in 1737.


Pope Pius XII's decision

The Rites controversy continued to hamper Church efforts to gain converts in China. In 1939, a few weeks after his election to the papacy, Pope Pius XII ordered the
Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples A congregation is a large gathering of people, often for the purpose of worship. Congregation may also refer to: *Church (congregation), a Christian organization meeting in a particular place for worship *Congregation (Roman Curia), an administra ...
to relax certain aspects of Clement XI's and Benedict XIV's decrees. After the Apostolic Vicars had received guarantees from the Manchukuo Government that confirmed the mere "civil" characteristics of the so-called "Chinese rites", the Holy See released, on 8 December 1939, a new decree, known as ''Plane Compertum'', stating: Overall, ''Plane Compertum'' asserted: * Catholics are permitted to be present at ceremonies in honor of Confucius in Confucian temples or in schools; * Erection of an image of Confucius or tablet with his name on is permitted in Catholic schools. * Catholic magistrates and students are permitted to passively attend public ceremonies which have the appearance of superstition. * It is licit and unobjectionable for head inclinations and other manifestations of civil observance before the deceased or their images. * The oath on the Chinese rites, which was prescribed by Benedict XIV, is not fully in accord with recent regulations and is superfluous. According to Pope Pius XII's biographer, Jan Olav Smit, this meant that Chinese customs were no longer considered superstitious, but were an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted by Catholic Christians. Confucianism was also thus recognized as a philosophy and an integral part of Chinese culture rather than as a heathen religion in conflict with Catholicism. Shortly afterwards, in 1943, the Government of China established diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The Papal decree changed the ecclesiastical situation in China in an almost revolutionary way. As the Church began to flourish, Pius XII established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy, and, on 18 February 1946, named
Thomas Tien Ken-sin Thomas Tien Ken-sin, SVD (; October 24, 1890 – July 24, 1967) was a Chinese Cardinal of the Catholic Church and chair of Fu Jen Catholic University. He served as Archbishop of Peking from 1946 until his death, and was elevated to the cardina ...
, who was from 18 July 1939 Apostolic Vicar of Qingdao, as the first Chinese national in the Sacred College of Cardinals and later that year – on 10 May 1946 – appointed him to the
Archdiocese of Beijing The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Beijing ( la, Archidioecesis Pechimensis) is a Metropolitan Latin archdiocese in the People's Republic of China. Special churches Its cathedral is the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Beijing, Cathe ...
.


See also

*
Chinese ancestor veneration Chinese ancestor veneration, also called Chinese ancestor worship, is an aspect of the Chinese traditional religion which revolves around the ritual celebration of the deified ancestors and tutelary deities of people with the same surname org ...
* Chinese ancestral hall and
ancestral tablet A spirit tablet, memorial tablet, or ancestral tablet, is a placard used to designate the seat of a deity or past ancestor as well as to enclose it. The name of the deity or past ancestor is usually inscribed onto the tablet. With origins in tra ...
* Malabar rites


References


Citations


Sources

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Further reading

* * Wu, Huiyi. (2017).
Traduire la Chine au XVIIIe siècle: Les Jésuites traducteurs de textes chinois et le renouvellement des connaissances sur la Chine (1687 – ca. 1740)
'. Paris: Honoré Champion. ISBN 978-2-7453-3182-3 * Giovannetti-Singh, Gianamar (2022). "Rethinking the Rites Controversy: Kilian Stumpf's ''Acta Pekinensia'' and the Historical Dimensions of a Religious Quarrel" ''Modern Intellectual History'' 19(1). * Rule, Paul A. (2004). "The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Long Lasting Controversy in Sino-Western Cultural History" ''Pacific Rim Report'' (32). {{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Rites Controversy 17th-century Catholicism 18th-century Catholicism Controversies in China 17th-century controversies 18th-century controversies 17th century in China 18th century in China Catholicism-related controversies Catholicism in China History of Catholicism in Asia History of Imperial China Jesuit China missions Jesuit history in Asia Pope Pius XII foreign relations History of Christianity in China Religious Confucianism