Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire
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Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire was to begin in 44 BC, but the
Roman dictator A Roman dictator was an extraordinary Roman magistrate, magistrate in the Roman Republic endowed with full authority to resolve some specific problem to which he had been assigned. He received the full powers of the state, subordinating the other ...
's assassination that year prevented the invasion from taking place.Malitz, ''Caesars Partherkrieg'
I
/ref> The campaign was to start with the pacification of
Dacia Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus r ...
, followed by an invasion of the
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conque ...
.Plutarch, ''Caesar'
58.6
/ref>Suetonius, ''The Life of Julius Caesar'

/ref>
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
also claims that once Parthia had been subdued, the army was to continue to
Scythia Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. His ...
, then
Germania Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north- ...
and finally back to Rome. Those grander plans are found only in Plutarch's ''
Parallel Lives Plutarch's ''Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans'', commonly called ''Parallel Lives'' or ''Plutarch's Lives'', is a series of 48 biographies of famous men, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably writt ...
'', and their authenticity is questioned by most scholars.Townend 1983 p. 601-606


Preparation and invasion plans

There is evidence that Caesar had begun practical preparation for the campaign some time before late 45 BC.Malitz, ''Caesars Partherkrieg'
V
/ref> By 44 BC Caesar had begun a mass mobilization, sixteen legions (c.60,000 men) and 10,000 cavalry were being gathered for the invasion.Appian, ''The Civil Wars'
2.110
/ref> These would be supported by auxiliary cavalry and light armed infantry. Six of the legions had already been sent to Macedonia to train, along with a large sum of gold for the expedition. Octavius was sent to Apollonia (within modern
Albania Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
), ostensibly as a student, to remain in contact with the army.Heitland 2013 p.469–471. As Caesar planned to be away for some time, he reordered the senate and ensured that all magistrates, consuls and tribunes would be appointed by him during his absence. Caesar intended to leave Rome to start the campaign on 18 March; however, three days prior to his departure he was
assassinated Assassination is the murder of a prominent or important person, such as a head of state, head of government, politician, world leader, member of a royal family or CEO. The murder of a celebrity, activist, or artist, though they may not have a ...
. The expedition was planned to take three years.Malitz, ''Caesars Partherkrieg'
VII
/ref> It was to begin with a punitive attack on Dacia under King
Burebista Burebista ( grc, Βυρεβίστας, Βοιρεβίστας) was the king of the Getae and Dacian tribes from 82/61BC to 45/44BC. He was the first king who successfully unified the tribes of the Dacian kingdom, which comprised the area locat ...
, who had been threatening Macedonia's northern border. It has been suggested by
Christopher Pelling Christopher Brendan Reginald Pelling, (born 14 December 1947) is a British classical scholar. He was the Regius Professor of Greek, at Christ Church, Oxford, from 2003 to 2015. He was President of the Hellenic Society from 2006 to 2008. His re ...
that Dacia, not Parthia, was going to be the expedition's main target. After Dacia the army was then to invade
Parthia Parthia ( peo, 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 ''Parθava''; xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 ''Parθaw''; pal, 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Med ...
from
Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
. The ancient sources diverge.
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies ...
states that Caesar wished to proceed cautiously and would not fully engage the Parthian army unless he had determined their full strength. Although he implies that Caesar's goal was an expansion of the empire, not just its stabilization, Plutarch describes a bolder campaign by writing that once Parthia had been subdued, the army would move through the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
, attack Scythia and return to Italy after it had conquered
Germania Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north- ...
.Plutarch, ''Caesar'
58.6,7
/ref> Plutarch also states that the construction of a canal through the isthmus of Corinth for which Anienus had been placed in charge, was to occur during the campaign.


Plutarch's reliability

Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' was written with the intention of finding correlations between the lives of famous Romans and Greeks; for example, Caesar was paired with
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
. Buszard's reading of ''Parallel Lives'' also interprets Plutarch as trying to use Caesar's future plans as a case study in the error of unbridled ambition. Some academics have theorised that Caesar's pairing with Alexander and Trajan's invasion of Parthia, which was around the time of Plutarch's writing, led to exaggerations in the presented invasion plan. The deployment of the army to Macedonia near the Dacian frontier and the lack of military preparation in
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
have also been used to lend support for that hypothesis. Malitz acknowledges that the Scythia and Germania plans appear to be unrealistic but believes that they were credible with the geographic knowledge of the time.


Motivation for invasion

The public excuse for the expedition was that less than ten years earlier, in 53 BC, an invasion of the Parthian Empire had been attempted by Roman Consul
Marcus Licinius Crassus Marcus Licinius Crassus (; 115 – 53 BC) was a Roman general and statesman who played a key role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. He is often called "the richest man in Rome." Wallechinsky, David & Wallace, I ...
and ended in failure and his death at the
Battle of Carrhae The Battle of Carrhae () was fought in 53 BC between the Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire near the ancient town of Carrhae (present-day Harran, Turkey). An invading force of seven legions of Roman heavy infantry under Marcus Licinius Cra ...
. To many Romans, that required revenge. Also, Parthia had taken
Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
's side in the recent civil war against Caesar.Malitz, ''Caesars Partherkrieg'
II
/ref> As the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
in 45 BC was still politically divided after the civil war, Marcus Cicero tried to lobby Caesar to postpone the Parthian invasion and to solve domestic problems instead. Following a similar line of thought in June that year, Caesar temporarily wavered in his intention to leave with the expedition. However, Caesar finally decided to leave Rome and to join the army in Macedonia. A number of motivations have been proposed to explain his decision to continue his military career. After a victorious campaign he would have, as Plutarch wrote, "completed this circuit of his empire, which would then be bounded on all sides by the ocean" and returned home with his lifelong dictatorship secured. It has also been proposed that Caesar knew of the threats against him and felt that leaving Rome and being in the company of a loyal army would be safer both personally and politically. Caesar may have also wished to heal the rift from the civil war or to distract from it by reminding the populace of Rome of the threat of a neighbouring empire.


Aftermath

In order to support a royal title for Caesar, a rumour was spread before the planned invasion. It alleged that it had been prophesied that only a Roman king could defeat Parthia. As Caesar's greatest internal opposition came from those that believed he wanted royal power, that strengthened the conspiracy against him. It has also been proposed that Caesar's opposition would be fearful of him returning victorious from his campaign since he would be more popular than ever. The assassination occurred on 15 March 44 BC on the day that the senate was to debate granting Caesar the title of king for the war with Parthia. However, some of the aspects of Caesar's planned kingship may have been invented after the assassination to justify the act. The relationship between the planned Parthian war and his death, if any, is unknown.Malitz, ''Caesars Partherkrieg'
IV
/ref> After Caesar's death,
Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autoc ...
successfully vied for control of the legions from the planned invasion, which were still stationed in Macedonia, and he temporarily took control of that province to do so. From 40 to 33 BC, Rome and particularly Antony would wage an unsuccessful war against Parthia. He used Caesar's proposed invasion plan, of attacking through Armenia, where it was felt that the support of the local king could be relied on. In Dacia, Burebista died the same year as Caesar, which led to the dissolution of his kingdom.


Footnotes


References


Sources


Ancient

*
Appian Appian of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἀππιανὸς Ἀλεξανδρεύς ''Appianòs Alexandreús''; la, Appianus Alexandrinus; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who flourished during the reigns of Emperors of Rome Trajan, Hadr ...

''The Civil Wars''
*
Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

''Roman History''
*
Nicolaus of Damascus Nicolaus of Damascus (Greek language, Greek: , ''Nikolāos Damaskēnos''; Latin: ''Nicolaus Damascenus'') was a Greek historian and philosopher who lived during the Augustus, Augustan age of the Roman Empire. His name is derived from that of his b ...

''Life of Augustus''
*
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
, ''
Parallel Lives Plutarch's ''Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans'', commonly called ''Parallel Lives'' or ''Plutarch's Lives'', is a series of 48 biographies of famous men, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably writt ...
''. *
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies ...
, ''
The Twelve Caesars ''De vita Caesarum'' (Latin; "About the Life of the Caesars"), commonly known as ''The Twelve Caesars'', is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire written by Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The g ...
''.


Modern

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External links


History of Rome podcast
by
Mike Duncan Robert Michael Duncan (born 1951) is a Kentucky Republican who served as the chairman of the Republican National Committee from 2007 to 2009. Throughout his career, he has served on the boards of a variety of public- and private-sector organizat ...
contextualizing and describing invasion plans. {{Julius Caesar Roman–Parthian Wars 1st century BC in the Roman Republic 1st century BC in Iran Abandoned military projects 1st century BC Julius Caesar