Cow demons and snake spirits ( zh, s=牛鬼蛇神, t=牛鬼蛇神, p=Niúguǐshéshén), also rendered in English as ox-demons and snake-spirits is a Chinese term used during the

Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a Social movement, sociopolitical movement in the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his de ...

(1966–1976) to demonize perceived enemies.

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

poet

Du Mu Du Mu ( zh, c=杜牧, p=Dù Mù, w=Tu4 Mu4; 803–852) was a Chinese calligrapher, poet, and politician who lived during the late Tang dynasty. His courtesy name was Muzhi (), and art name Fanchuan (). He is best known for his lyrical and roma ...

(803–852) coined the term in the preface of a poetry collection by

Li He Li He ( – ) was a Chinese poet of the Tang poetry#Middle Tang, mid-Tang dynasty. His courtesy name was Changji, and he is also known as Guicai and Shigui. He was prevented from taking the imperial examination due to a naming taboo. He died ve ...

(791–817) to praise the fantastical elements in Li's poetry.

History

The term is rooted in Buddhist

demonology Demonology is the study of demons within religious belief and myth. Depending on context, it can refer to studies within theology, religious doctrine, or occultism. In many faiths, it concerns the study of a hierarchy of demons. Demons may be n ...

. The poet Du Mu first used the term during the Tang dynasty in a preface describing the supernatural in Li He's poetry.

Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...

first began using the term in his speeches during spring 1957. He first used it in March of that year, referring to ghost plays in traditional operas: An admirer of Li, Mao in the 1960s frequently used this term to refer to reactionary elements and those he deemed class enemies. On 12 August 1966 at the Eleventh Plenary Session of the CPC Eighth National Congress, Mao told the Standing Committee that there were ox demons and venomous spirits sitting among them and that "to rebel is justified". In 1966, after

Chen Boda Chen Boda (; 29 July 1904 – 20 September 1989), was a Chinese Communist journalist, professor and political theorist who rose to power as the chief interpreter of Maoism (or "Mao Zedong Thought") in the first 20 years of the People's Republi ...

(the leader of the

Cultural Revolution Group The Central Cultural Revolution Group (CRG or CCRG; ) was formed in May 1966 as a replacement organisation to the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party and the Five Man Group, and was initially directly responsible to the Politburo Standi ...

) took over the official newspaper of the

Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, officially the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, is the Central committee, highest organ when the National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, national congress is not ...

, ''

People's Daily The ''People's Daily'' ( zh, s=人民日报, p=Rénmín Rìbào) is the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It provides direct information on the policies and viewpoints of the CCP in multiple lan ...

'', an editorial titled ''

Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits ''Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits'' (), alternatively translated as ''Obliterate All Ox Demons and Snake Spirits'', ''Sweep Away All Ox-ghosts and Snake-spirits'', is an editorial published by the ''People's Daily'' on June 1, 1966, ...

'' () published on June 1, 1966, called for a nationwide struggle against these elements. "Cow demons and snake spirits" became one of the most popular terms during the Cultural Revolution, a term used to denounce and dehumanize any "enemy", real or perceived. In her first public speech in June 1964 at a

Peking Opera Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines instrumental music, vocal performance, mime, martial arts, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became ...

convention,

Jiang Qing Jiang Qing (March 191414 May 1991), also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and political figure. She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Chairman of the Communis ...

criticized regional opera troupes for glorifying emperors, generals, scholars, and other ox-demons and snake-spirits. The exact definition of the term (like most things in the Cultural Revolution) was unclear and subject to interpretation, but the major enemies of the Cultural Revolution were: *

Five Black Categories The "Five Black Categories" () were classifications of political identity and social status in History of the People's Republic of China#Mao era (1949–1976), Mao era (1949–1976) of the People's Republic of China, especially during the Chinese C ...

- Landlords, rightists, rich farmers, counter revolutionaries, and "bad elements" *

Capitalist roader In Maoism, a capitalist roader is a person or group who demonstrates a marked tendency to bow to pressure from bourgeois forces and subsequently attempts to pull the Chinese Communist Revolution in a capitalist direction. If allowed to do so, thes ...

s *

Stinking Old Ninth The Stinking Old Ninth () is a Chinese dysphemism for intellectuals used at two major points, the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). History The Yuan dynasty The term originated during the Yuan dynasty where t ...

s (intellectuals) *''

Hanjian In China, the word ''hanjian'' () is a pejorative term for those seen as traitors to the Chinese state and, to a lesser extent, Han Chinese ethnicity. The word ''hanjian'' is distinct from the general word for traitor, which could be used for a ...

'' (traitors)

Red Guard The Red Guards () were a mass, student-led, paramilitary social movement mobilized by Chairman Mao Zedong in 1966 until their abolition in 1968, during the first phase of the Cultural Revolution, which he had instituted.Teiwes According to a ...

art often used the slogan "Sweep Away All Ox-Demons and Snake-Spirits," frequently with imagery of brooms. Brooms were traditional weapons or tools of spirit mediums.

History

References

Further reading