The

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

was the first conflict where large armies heavily relied on

railroads Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel rails. Rail transport is one of the two primary means of land transport, next to road ...

for transporting supplies. The

Confederate States Army The Confederate States Army (CSA), also called the Confederate army or the Southern army, was the Military forces of the Confederate States, military land force of the Confederate States of America (commonly referred to as the Confederacy) duri ...

's railroad system was fragile and primarily designed for short hauls of cotton to nearby rivers or ocean port. Due to the South's limited manufacturing and industrial capacity, obtaining new parts during the war was challenging. Consequently, the railroad system deteriorated due to overuse, lack of maintenance, and systematic destruction by Union raiders. The outbreak of war negatively impacted the Confederate railroad industry's economic fortunes. With the cotton crop hoarded under the "

King Cotton "King Cotton" is a slogan that summarized the strategy used before the American Civil War (of 1861–1865) by secessionists in the southern states (the future Confederate States of America) to claim the feasibility of secession and to prove ther ...

" theory, railroads lost their primary source of income.Ramsdell, p. 795. Many had to lay off employees, including skilled technicians and engineers. Believing the war would be short, Confederate rail operators initially did not seek or build alternative sources of iron for rail construction and repair. Although railroad contracts to port towns had ceased due to the cotton export policy and the Union naval blockade, lucrative government contracts were given to rail operators with lines supplying men and arms to the front lines in

Tennessee Tennessee (, ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina t ...

and

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...

. A consortium of rail operators established a universal rate for government contracts: two cents per mile for men and half the regular local rate for

munitions Ammunition, also known as ammo, is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. The term includes both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines), and the component parts of ...

, provisions, and materials. They also agreed to accept Confederate bonds at par as payment for government transportation. The Confederacy's rail network suffered from two key deficiencies. First, the route structure was designed to serve the coastal shipping industry, with most lines connecting ports and river terminals to inland points. This lack of inter-railway connections rendered many railroads useless once the

Union blockade The Union blockade in the American Civil War was a naval strategy by the United States to prevent the Confederate States of America, Confederacy from trading. The blockade was proclaimed by President Abraham Lincoln in April 1861, and required ...

was in place. Second, there was a

break of gauge With railways, a break of gauge occurs where a line of one track gauge (the distance between the rails, or between the wheels of trains designed to run on those rails) meets a line of a different gauge. Trains and railroad car, rolling stock g ...

issue: much of the Confederate rail network used the

broad gauge A broad-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge (the distance between the rails) broader than the used by standard-gauge railways. Broad gauge of , more known as Russian gauge, is the dominant track gauge in former Soviet Union countries ...

, while much of

North Carolina North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...

and Virginia used the . This often required cargo to be unloaded from one railroad and transported by animal-powered means to another station with a different gauge, as seen in cities like

Montgomery, Alabama Montgomery is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the U.S. state of Alabama. Named for Continental Army major general Richard Montgomery, it stands beside the Alabama River on the Gulf Coastal Plain. The population was 2 ...

. Additionally, Southern railroads west of the Mississippi were isolated, disconnected, and varied widely in gauge. In contrast, many Northern railroads formed complex networks, with multiple lines serving the same cities and most using the same gauge, facilitating easier transfers.

History

1861

As troop movement began in earnest in May and June 1861, a significant issue emerged: many rail lines terminated in towns without connecting to other lines.Ramsdell, p. 797. This required cargo to be unloaded, transported across town, and reloaded, while soldiers and other passengers often had to stay overnight to catch a continuing train the next day. When the Confederate government attempted to address this problem, they faced local opposition. Towns favored the lack of connection because it necessitated the hiring of teamsters and increased demand for hotel rooms. Although railroad operators were not against connecting lines, they opposed the potential need to share

rolling stock The term rolling stock in the rail transport industry refers to railway vehicles, including both powered and unpowered vehicles: for example, locomotives, Railroad car#Freight cars, freight and Passenger railroad car, passenger cars (or coaches) ...

with rival companies. Confederate raids on the Union's key railroad, the

Baltimore and Ohio The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the oldest railroad in the United States and the first steam-operated common carrier. Construction of the line began in 1828, and it operated as B&O from 1830 until 1987, when it was merged into the Chessi ...

(B&O), devastated tracks and rolling stock, causing the line to cease operations temporarily. However, the North's substantial industrial resources enabled them to quickly restore operations.

1862

In early 1862, the Confederacy constructed a spur off the

Orange and Alexandria Railroad The Orange and Alexandria Railroad (O&A) was a railroad in Virginia, United States. Chartered in 1848, it eventually extended from Alexandria, Virginia, Alexandria to Gordonsville, Virginia, Gordonsville, with another section from Charlottesville ...

at Manassas Junction, called the Centreville Military Railroad. This spur was built to supply the Confederate defenses on the Centreville Plateau along the north side of Bull Run, feeding into the

Occoquan River The Occoquan River is a tributary of the Potomac River in Northern Virginia, where it serves as part of the boundary between Fairfax and Prince William counties. The river is a scenic area, and several local high schools and colleges use the r ...

. As the war continued, railroad operators attempted to acquire supplies from abroad due to the Confederacy's limited industrial base.Ersatz, p. 128. The supply problem became increasingly severe, particularly for engines and cars. Stressed by overuse, lacking materials for repairs, and losing skilled workers to conscription, rail operators predicted a breaking point as early as 1862. Despite their efforts to seek assistance from the

Confederate Congress The Confederate States Congress was both the provisional and permanent legislative assembly/legislature of the Confederate States of America that existed from February 1861 to April/June 1865, during the American Civil War. Its actions were, ...

throughout the war, the response was either indifferent or hostile.

1863

In mid-1863, the Confederate government finally implemented a comprehensive policy concerning railroads, focused solely on aiding the war effortMary Elizabeth Massey Ersatz in the Confederacy University of South Carolina Press, Columbia. 1952, p. 128. rather than supporting the weakening economy of the Confederate States of America. New legislation permitted the commandeering, or "

impressment Impressment, colloquially "the press" or the "press gang", is a type of conscription of people into a military force, especially a naval force, via intimidation and physical coercion, conducted by an organized group (hence "gang"). European nav ...

," of railroads and their rolling stock, bringing them under de facto military control. Meanwhile, the Union's victory in the

Chattanooga Campaign The Chattanooga campaign was a series of maneuvers and battles in October and November 1863, during the American Civil War. Following the defeat of Major general (United States), Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans's Union Army, Union Army of the C ...

gave the United States Military Railroad full control of the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, which, after repairs, supplied the Atlanta Campaign.

1864

In March 1864, the

Confederate Quartermaster-General's Department The Confederate Congress created the position of Quartermaster-General on 26 February 1861 and the Secretary of War was allowed one Colonel and six Majors to serve as Quartermasters. The first Quartermaster General was Col. Abraham C. Myers; his ...

mandated that all passenger trains yield to governmental trains.Ersatz, p. 129. By mid-1864, passenger service in the Confederacy had come to a complete halt. The transport of goods for civilian use was also severely impacted, worsening shortages caused by wartime devastation,

speculation In finance, speculation is the purchase of an asset (a commodity, good (economics), goods, or real estate) with the hope that it will become more valuable in a brief amount of time. It can also refer to short sales in which the speculator hope ...

hoarding Hoarding is the act of engaging in excessive acquisition of items that are not needed or for which no space is available. Civil unrest or the threat of natural disasters may lead people to hoard foodstuffs, water, gasoline, and other essentials ...

, and the Confederacy's impressment policy.In the final year of the war, the Confederate railroad system was constantly on the verge of collapse. The impressment policy of quartermasters strained the rail network to its limits. Feeder lines were dismantled to provide replacement steel for trunk lines, and the relentless use of rolling stock caused wear and tear faster than they could be repaired or replaced.

Union use

As Union armies advanced deeper into Confederate territory, they gained control of former Confederate railway lines, or what remained of them. Confederate troops typically employed a

scorched earth A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy of destroying everything that allows an enemy military force to be able to fight a war, including the deprivation and destruction of water, food, humans, animals, plants and any kind of tools and i ...

policy towards railroads during their retreats, leaving the Union troops to rebuild entire lines from scratch to make them usable.Riegel, pp. 127-28. Late in 1862, Confederate forces devastated the Mississippi Central Railroad, halting the Union invasion. General Grant later resumed the offensive, pursuing the

Vicksburg Campaign The Vicksburg campaigns were a series of maneuvers and battles in the Western Theater of the American Civil War directed against Vicksburg, Mississippi, a fortress city that dominated the last Confederate-controlled section of the Mississippi ...

along the river, where

steamboats A steamboat is a boat that is marine propulsion, propelled primarily by marine steam engine, steam power, typically driving propellers or Paddle steamer, paddlewheels. The term ''steamboat'' is used to refer to small steam-powered vessels worki ...

could deliver supplies. Sherman's March to the Sea in late 1864 reversed the roles, with the Union army destroying the main line of the Georgia Railroad and others. Due to the shifting tides of the war, some rail lines were rebuilt six or seven times by opposing forces, particularly in states like Virginia, where the fighting was most intense.

Expansion

Attempts were made to expand the Confederacy's rail system by adding or connecting lines. Of the three major rail projects proposed and funded by the Confederate Congress, only one—a connection between

Danville, Virginia Danville is an independent city (United States), independent city in the Virginia, Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. The city is located in the Southside (Virginia), Southside Virginia region and on the fall line of the Dan River ( ...

, and

Greensboro, North Carolina Greensboro (; ) is a city in Guilford County, North Carolina, United States, and its county seat. At the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, its population was 299,035; it was estimated to be 307,381 in 2024. It is the List of municipalitie ...

—was completed. Although the

Confederate Constitution The Constitution of the Confederate States was the supreme law of the Confederate States of America. It superseded the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, the Confederate State's first constitution, in 1862.. Retrieved July 10, ...

prohibited

internal improvements Internal improvements is the term used historically in the United States for public works from the end of the American Revolution through much of the 19th century, mainly for the creation of a transportation infrastructure: roads, turnpikes, can ...

to aid commerce, it did not forbid improvements for wartime defense.Currie, p. 1311.

Notes

References

* Bailey, Joe R. "Union Lifeline in Tennessee: A Military History of the Nashville and Northwestern Railroad," ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' (2008) 67#2 pp. 106–12
in JSTOR
* Bearss, Edwin C. "Grierson's Winter Raid on the Mobile and Ohio Railroad," ''Military Affairs'' (1960) 24#1 pp. 20–3
in JSTOR
* Black III, Robert C. "Railroads in the Confederacy." ''Civil War History'' (1961) 7#3 pp: 231–238
online
* Black, III, Robert C. ''The Railroads of the Confederacy'' (1952
excerpt and text search
* Brown Jr., Canter "The Florida, Atlantic and Gulf Central Railroad, 1851-1868," ''Florida Historical Quarterly'' (1991) 69#4 pp. 411–42
in JSTOR
* Clark, John Elwood. ''Railroads in the Civil War: The Impact of Management on Victory and Defeat'' (LSU Press, 2001) * Clarke, Robert L. "The Florida Railroad Company in the Civil War," ''Journal of Southern History'' (1953) 19#2 pp. 180–19
in JSTOR
* Cotterill, R. S. "The Louisville and Nashville Railroad 1861-1865," ''American Historical Review'' (1924) 29#4 pp. 700–71
in JSTOR
* Currie, David P. "Through the Looking-Glass: The Confederate Constitution in Congress, 1861-1865" ''Virginia Law Review'', Vol. 90, No. 5 (Sep., 2004) * Diamond, William. "Imports of the Confederate Government from Europe and Mexico." ''The Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 6, No. 4 (Nov., 1940) * Estaville Jr., Lawrence E. "A Strategic Railroad: The New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern in the Civil War," ''Louisiana History'' (1973) 14#2 pp. 117–13
in JSTOR
* * Huff, Leo E. "The Memphis and Little Rock Railroad during the Civil War," ''Arkansas Historical Quarterly'' (1964) 23#3 pp. 260–27
in JSTOR
* Lash, Jeffrey N. "Joseph E. Johnston and the Virginia Railways, 1861-62." ''Civil War History'' 35.1 (1989): 5-27
online
* McGuire, Peter S. "The Railroads of Georgia, 1860-1880." ''The Georgia Historical Quarterly'' (1932): 179–213
in JSTOR
* Massey, Mary Elizabeth. ''Ersatz in the Confederacy'' University of South Carolina Press, Columbia. 1952 * Partin, Robert. "The Civil War in East Tennessee as Reported By a Confederate Railroad Bridge Builder," ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' (1963) 22#3 pp. 238–25
in JSTOR
* Ramsdell, Charles W. "The Confederate Government and the Railroads" ''The American Historical Review'' (1917) 22#4
in JSTOR
* Riegel, R.E. "Federal Operation of Southern Railroads during the Civil War." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1922) 9#
in JSTOR
* Turner, Charles W. "The Virginia Central Railroad at War, 1861-1865," ''Journal of Southern History'' (1946) 12#4 pp. 510–53
in JSTOR
* Turner, Charles W. "The Virginia Southwestern Railroad System at War, 1861-1865," ''North Carolina Historical Review'' (1947) 24#4 pp. 467–48
in JSTOR
* Turner, George E. ''Victory Rode the Rails The Strategic Place of the Railroads in the Civil War'' (1953)

External links

Confederate Railroads
{{DEFAULTSORT:Confederate Railroads In The American Civil War Economic history of the American Civil War Economic history of the Confederate States of America History of rail transportation in the United States