Cognitive biology is an emerging science that regards natural

cognition Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...

as a biological function. It is based on the theoretical assumption that every

organism An organism is any life, living thing that functions as an individual. Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Many criteria, few of them widely accepted, have be ...

—whether a single cell or

multicellular A multicellular organism is an organism that consists of more than one cell (biology), cell, unlike unicellular organisms. All species of animals, Embryophyte, land plants and most fungi are multicellular, as are many algae, whereas a few organism ...

—is continually engaged in systematic acts of cognition coupled with intentional behaviors, i.e., a

sensory-motor coupling Sensory-motor coupling is the coupling or integration of the sensory system and motor system. For a given stimulus, there is no one single motor command. "Neural responses at almost every stage of a sensorimotor pathway are modified at short and l ...

. That is to say, if an organism can sense stimuli in its environment and respond accordingly, it is cognitive. Any explanation of how natural cognition may manifest in an organism is constrained by the biological conditions in which its genes survive from one generation to the next. And since by Darwinian theory the

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

of every organism is evolving from a common root, three further elements of cognitive biology are required: (i) the study of cognition in one species of organism is useful, through contrast and comparison, to the study of another species' cognitive abilities; (ii) it is useful to proceed from organisms with simpler to those with more complex cognitive systems, and (iii) the greater the number and variety of species studied in this regard, the more we understand the nature of cognition.

Overview

While

cognitive science Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include percep ...

endeavors to explain human thought and the conscious mind, the work of cognitive biology is focused on the most fundamental process of cognition for any organism. In the past several decades, biologists have investigated cognition in organisms large and small, both plant and animal. “Mounting evidence suggests that even

bacteria Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of Prokaryote, prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micr ...

grapple with problems long familiar to cognitive scientists, including: integrating information from multiple sensory channels to marshal an effective response to fluctuating conditions; making decisions under conditions of uncertainty; communicating with conspecifics and others (honestly and deceptively); and coordinating collective behaviour to increase the chances of survival.” Without thinking or perceiving as humans would have it, an act of basic cognition is arguably a simple step-by-step process through which an organism senses a stimulus, then finds an appropriate response in its repertoire and enacts the response. However, the biological details of such basic cognition have neither been delineated for a great many species nor sufficiently generalized to stimulate further investigation. This lack of detail is due to the lack of a science dedicated to the task of elucidating the cognitive ability common to all biological organisms. That is to say, a ''

science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

'' of cognitive biology has yet to be established. A prolegomena for such science was presented in 2007 and several authors have published their thoughts on the subject since the late 1970s. Yet, as the examples in the next section suggest, there is neither consensus on the theory nor widespread application in practice. Although the two terms are sometimes used synonymously, cognitive biology should not be confused with the biology of cognition in the sense that it is used by adherents to the Chilean School of Biology of Cognition. Also known as the Santiago School, the biology of cognition is based on the work of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana, who crafted the doctrine of

autopoiesis The term autopoiesis (), one of several current theories of life, refers to a system capable of producing and maintaining itself by creating its own parts. The term was introduced in the 1972 publication '' Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realizat ...

. Their work began in 1970 while the first mention of cognitive biology by Brian Goodwin (discussed below) was in 1977 from a different perspective.

History

'Cognitive biology' first appeared in the literature as a paper with that title by Brian C. Goodwin in 1977. There and in several related publications Goodwin explained the advantage of cognitive biology in the context of his work on morphogenesis. He subsequently moved on to other issues of structure, form, and complexity with little further mention of cognitive biology. Without an advocate, Goodwin's concept of cognitive biology has yet to gain widespread acceptance. Aside from an essay regarding Goodwin's conception by

Margaret Boden Margaret Ann Boden (born 26 November 1936) is a British academic who is a Research Professor of Cognitive Science in the Department of Informatics at the University of Sussex, where her work embraces the fields of artificial intelligence, psyc ...

in 1980, the next appearance of 'cognitive biology' as a phrase in the literature came in 1986 from a professor of biochemistry, Ladislav Kováč. His conception, based on natural principles grounded in bioenergetics and molecular biology, is briefly discussed below. Kováč's continued advocacy has had a greater influence in his homeland, Slovakia, than elsewhere partly because several of his most important papers were written and published only in Slovakian. By the 1990s, breakthroughs in molecular, cell, evolutionary, and developmental biology generated a cornucopia of data-based theory relevant to cognition. Yet aside from the theorists already mentioned, no one was addressing cognitive biology except for Kováč.

Kováč's cognitive biology

Ladislav Kováč's “Introduction to cognitive biology” (Kováč, 1986a) lists ten 'Principles of Cognitive Biology.' A closely related thirty page paper was published the following year: “Overview: Bioenergetics between chemistry, genetics and physics.” (Kováč, 1987). Over the following decades, Kováč elaborated, updated, and expanded these themes in frequent publications, including "Fundamental principles of cognitive biology" (Kováč, 2000), “Life, chemistry, and cognition” (Kováč, 2006a), "Information and Knowledge in Biology: Time for Reappraisal” (Kováč, 2007) and "Bioenergetics: A key to brain and mind" (Kováč, 2008).

Academic usage

University seminar

The concept of cognitive biology is exemplified by this seminar description:

University workgroup

The

University of Adelaide The University of Adelaide is a public university, public research university based in Adelaide, South Australia. Established in 1874, it is the third-oldest university in Australia. Its main campus in the Adelaide city centre includes many Sa ...

has established a "Cognitive Biology" workgroup using this operating concept: Members of the group study the biological literature on simple organisms (e.g.,

nematode The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (h ...

) in regard to cognitive process and look for homologues in more complex organisms (e.g., crow) already well studied. This comparative approach is expected to yield simple cognitive concepts common to all organisms. “It is hoped a theoretically well-grounded toolkit of basic cognitive concepts will facilitate the use and discussion of research carried out in different fields to increase understanding of two foundational issues: what cognition is and what cognition does in the biological context.” (Bold letters from original text.) The group's choice of name, as they explain on a separate webpage, might have been '

embodied cognition Embodied cognition represents a diverse group of theories which investigate how cognition is shaped by the bodily state and capacities of the organism. These embodied factors include the motor system, the perceptual system, bodily interactions wi ...

' or 'biological cognitive science.' But the group chose 'cognitive biology' for the sake of (i) emphasis and (ii) method. For the sake of emphasis, (i) “We want to keep the focus on biology because for too long cognition was considered a function that could be almost entirely divorced from its physical instantiation, to the extent that whatever could be said of cognition almost by definition had to be applicable to both organisms and machines.” (ii) The method is to “assume (if only for the sake of enquiry) that cognition is a biological function similar to other biological functions—such as respiration, nutrient circulation, waste elimination, and so on.” The method supposes that the genesis of cognition is biological, i.e., the method is ''

biogenic A biogenic substance is a product made by or of life forms. While the term originally was specific to metabolite compounds that had toxic effects on other organisms, it has developed to encompass any constituents, secretions, and metabolites of p ...

''. The host of the group's website has said elsewhere that cognitive biology requires a biogenic approach, having identified ten principles of biogenesis in an earlier work. The first four biogenic principles are quoted here to illustrate the depth at which the foundations have been set at the

Adelaide Adelaide ( , ; ) is the list of Australian capital cities, capital and most populous city of South Australia, as well as the list of cities in Australia by population, fifth-most populous city in Australia. The name "Adelaide" may refer to ei ...

school of cognitive biology: #“Complex cognitive capacities have evolved from simpler forms of cognition. There is a continuous line of meaningful descent.” #“Cognition directly or indirectly modulates the physico-chemical-electrical processes that constitute an organism .” #“Cognition enables the establishment of reciprocal causal relations with an environment, leading to exchanges of matter and energy that are essential to the organism's continued persistence, well-being or replication.” #“Cognition relates to the (more or less) continuous assessment of system needs relative to prevailing circumstances, the potential for interaction, and whether the current interaction is working or not.”

Other universities

* As another example, the Department für Kognitionsbiologie at the University of Vienna declares in its mission statement a strong commitment “to experimental evaluation of multiple, testable hypotheses” regarding cognition in terms of evolutionary and developmental history as well as adaptive function and mechanism, whether the mechanism is cognitive, neural, and/or hormonal. “The approach is strongly comparative: multiple species are studied, and compared within a rigorous

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical dat ...

framework, to understand the evolutionary history and adaptive function of cognitive mechanisms ('cognitive phylogenetics').” Their website offers a sample of their work: “Social Cognition and the Evolution of Language: Constructing Cognitive Phylogenies.” * A more restricted example can be found with the Cognitive Biology Group, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science, Otto-von-Guericke University (OVGU) in Magdeburg, Germany. The group offers courses titled “Neurobiology of Consciousness” and “Cognitive Neurobiology.” Its website lists the papers generated from its lab work, focusing on the neural correlates of perceptual consequences and visual attention. The group's current work is aimed at detailing a dynamic known as '

multistable perception Multistable perception (or bistable perception) is a perceptual phenomenon in which an observer experiences an unpredictable sequence of spontaneous subjective changes. While usually associated with visual perception (a form of optical illusion ...

.' The

phenomenon A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...

, described in a sentence: “Certain visual displays are not perceived in a stable way but, from time to time and seemingly spontaneously, their appearance wavers and settles in a distinctly different form.” * A final example of university commitment to cognitive biology can be found at

Comenius University Comenius University Bratislava () is the largest university in Slovakia, with most of its faculties located in Bratislava. It was founded in 1919, shortly after the creation of Czechoslovakia. It is named after Jan Amos Comenius, a 17th-century ...

in Bratislava, Slovakia. There in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, the Bratislava Biocenter is presented as a consortium of research teams working in biomedical sciences. Their website lists the Center for Cognitive Biology in the Department of Biochemistry at the top of the page, followed by five lab groups, each at a separate department of bioscience. The webpage for the Center for Cognitive Biology offers a link to "Foundations of Cognitive Biology," a page that simply contains a quotation from a paper authored by Ladislav Kováč, the site's founder. His perspective is briefly discussed below.

Cognitive biology as a category

The words 'cognitive' and 'biology' are also used together as the name of a category. The category of ''cognitive biology'' has no fixed content but, rather, the content varies with the user. If the content can only be recruited from ''

'', then cognitive biology would seem limited to a selection of items in the main set of sciences included by the interdisciplinary concept—

cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of human mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning. Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, whi ...

artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is the capability of computer, computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of re ...

linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...

philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions, and its disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, ...

, and

cognitive anthropology Cognitive anthropology is a subfield of anthropology influenced by Linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and biological anthropology in which scholars seek to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission ...

. These six separate sciences were allied “to bridge the gap between brain and mind” with an

interdisciplinary Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economi ...

approach in the mid-1970s. Participating scientists were concerned only with human cognition. As it gained momentum, the growth of cognitive science in subsequent decades seemed to offer a big tent to a variety of researchers. Some, for example, considered evolutionary epistemology a fellow-traveler. Others appropriated the keyword, as for example Donald Griffin in 1978, when he advocated the establishment of cognitive ethology. Meanwhile, breakthroughs in

molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...

, cell,

evolutionary Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certa ...

, and

developmental biology Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of Regeneration (biology), regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and di ...

generated a

cornucopia In classical antiquity, the cornucopia (; ), also called the horn of plenty, was a symbol of abundance and nourishment, commonly a large horn-shaped container overflowing with produce, flowers, or nuts. In Greek, it was called the " horn of ...

of data-based theory relevant to cognition. Categorical assignments were problematic. For example, the decision to append ''cognitive'' to a body of biological research on neurons, e.g. the cognitive biology of neuroscience, is separate from the decision to put such body of research in a category named cognitive sciences. No less difficult a decision needs be made—between the

computational A computation is any type of arithmetic or non-arithmetic calculation that is well-defined. Common examples of computation are mathematical equation solving and the execution of computer algorithms. Mechanical or electronic devices (or, historic ...

and constructivist approach to cognition, and the concomitant issue of simulated v. embodied cognitive models—before appending biology to a body of cognitive research, e.g. the cognitive science of

artificial life Artificial life (ALife or A-Life) is a field of study wherein researchers examine systems related to natural life, its processes, and its evolution, through the use of simulations with computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. The discipline ...

. One solution is to consider ''cognitive biology'' only as a subset of ''cognitive science''. For example, a major publisher's website displays links to material in a dozen domains of major scientific endeavor. One of which is described thus: “Cognitive science is the study of how the mind works, addressing cognitive functions such as perception and action, memory and learning, reasoning and problem solving, decision-making and consciousness.” Upon its selection from the display, the ''Cognitive Science'' page offers in nearly alphabetical order these topics: ''Cognitive Biology'', Computer Science, Economics, Linguistics, Psychology, Philosophy, and Neuroscience. Linked through that list of topics, upon its selection the ''Cognitive Biology'' page offers a selection of reviews and articles with biological content ranging from cognitive ethology through

evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary epistemology refers to three distinct topics: (1) the biological evolution of cognitive mechanisms in animals and humans, (2) a theory that knowledge itself evolves by natural selection, and (3) the study of the historical discovery ...

; cognition and art; evo-devo and cognitive science; animal learning; genes and cognition; cognition and animal welfare; etc. A different application of the ''cognitive biology'' category is manifest in the 2009 publication of papers presented at a three-day interdisciplinary workshop on “The New Cognitive Sciences” held at the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research in 2006. The papers were listed under four headings, each representing a different domain of requisite cognitive ability: (i) space, (ii) qualities and objects, (iii) numbers and probabilities, and (iv) social entities. The workshop papers examined topics ranging from “Animals as Natural Geometers” and “Color Generalization by Birds” through “Evolutionary Biology of Limited Attention” and “A comparative Perspective on the Origin of Numerical Thinking” as well as “Neuroethology of Attention in Primates” and ten more with less colorful titles. “ the last day of the workshop the participants agreed

hat A hat is a Headgear, head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorpor ...

the title 'Cognitive Biology' sounded like a potential candidate to capture the merging of the cognitive and the life sciences that the workshop aimed at representing.” Thus the publication of Tommasi, et al. (2009), ''Cognitive Biology: Evolutionary and Developmental Perspectives on Mind, Brain and Behavior.'' A final example of categorical use comes from an author's introduction to his 2011 publication on the subject, ''Cognitive Biology: Dealing with Information from Bacteria to Minds''. After discussing the differences between the cognitive and biological sciences, as well as the value of one to the other, the author concludes: “Thus, the object of this book should be considered as an attempt at building a new discipline, that of ''cognitive biology'', which endeavors to bridge these two domains.” There follows a detailed methodology illustrated by examples in biology anchored by concepts from

cybernetics Cybernetics is the transdisciplinary study of circular causal processes such as feedback and recursion, where the effects of a system's actions (its outputs) return as inputs to that system, influencing subsequent action. It is concerned with ...

(e.g., self-regulatory systems) and

quantum information theory Quantum information is the information of the state of a quantum system. It is the basic entity of study in quantum information theory, and can be manipulated using quantum information processing techniques. Quantum information refers to both t ...

(regarding probabilistic changes of state) with an invitation "to consider system theory together with information theory as the formal tools that may ground biology and cognition as traditional mathematics grounds physics.”Auletta (2011), p61. See also, for examples, pps 335 & 340.

References & notes

Bibliography

* Auletta, Gennaro (2011). Cognitive biology: dealing with information from bacteria to minds. Oxford University Press. * Baluška, František and Stefano Mancuso (2009). Deep evolutionary origins of neurobiology: Turning the essence of 'neural' upside-down. Commun Integr Biol. Jan-Feb; 2(1): 60–65. * Bechtel, William (2013). Seminar description for "Cognitive Biology" in the "Cognitive Science 200" series for "Fall, 2013" at University of California, San Diego, . See also http://mechanism.ucsd.edu/teaching/f13/cs200/bacterialinformationprocessing.pdf. * Ben Jacob, Eshel, Yoash Shapira, and Alfred I. Tauber (2006). "Seeking the foundations of cognition in bacteria: From Schrödinger's negative entropy to latent information." Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 359: 495-524. * Bird, Angela (2010). Review - Cognitive Biology: Evolutionary and Developmental Perspectives on Mind, Brain, and Behavior * by Luca, Tommasi, Mary A. Peterson and Lynn Nadel (Editors, MIT Press, 2009). Metapsychology Online Reviews, Volume 14, Issue 3. * Boden, Margaret A (2006). Mind as machine: A history of cognitive science. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. * Boden, Margaret and Susan K Zaw (1980). “The case for a cognitive biology.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 54: 25–71. * Byrne, R. W., Bates, L. A., Moss, C. J. (2009). “Elephant cognition in primate perspective.” Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews, 4, 65-79. Retrieved from http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160520170354/http://comparative-cognition-and-behavior-reviews.org/index.html doi:10.3819/ccbr.2009.40009 * Calvo, Paco, and Fred Keijzer (2009). "Cognition in plants." Plant-environment interactions: Signaling & communication in plants: 247-266. * Chomsky, N. (1972). Problems of Knowledge and Freedom. London: Fontana. * Denton, Michael J., Craig J. Marshall, and Michael Legge (2002). "The protein folds as platonic forms: new support for the pre-Darwinian conception of evolution by natural law." Journal of Theoretical Biology 219.3: 325-342. * Emmeche, Claus. "Life as an abstract phenomenon: Is artificial life possible?" (1992). Pages 466-474 in Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine (eds.):Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems. Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life. The MIT Press. * Frankish, Keith, and William Ramsey, editors (2012). The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Science. Cambridge University Press. * Goodwin, Brian C (1976a). Analytical Physiology of Cells and Developing Organisms. London: Academic Press. * Goodwin, Brian C (1976b). "On some relationships between embryogenesis and cognition." Theoria to Theory 10: 33-44. * Goodwin, Brian C (1977). "Cognitive biology." Communication & Cognition. Vol 10(2), 87-91. This paper also appeared the same year in deMey, M, R. Pinxten, M. Poriau & F. Vandamme (Eds.), CC77 International Workshop on the Cognitive Viewpoint, University of Ghent Press, London, pp. 396–400. * Goodwin, Brian C (1978). “A cognitive view of biological process.” J Soc Biol Structures 1:117-125 * Griffin, Donald R. "Prospects for a cognitive ethology." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1.04 (1978): 527-538. * Huber, Ludwig and Anna Wilkinson. "Evolution of cognition: A comparative approach." Chapter 8 in Sensory Perception. Springer Vienna, 2012. 135-152. * Kamil, Alan C. (1998). "On the proper definition of cognitive ethology." Animal cognition in nature. Academic Press, San Diego 1-28. * Kováč, Ladislav (1986a). “Úvod do kognitívnej biológie.” (Published in Slovak with an abstract in English, the title translates as an “Introduction to cognitive biology.”) Biol. listy 51: 172- 190. * Kováč, Ladislav (1986b). The future of bioenergetics. EBEC Reports 4: 26 - 27. * Kováč, Ladislav (1987). “Overview: Bioenergetics between chemistry, genetics and physics.” Curr. Topics Bioenerg. 15: 331- 372. * Kováč, Ladislav (2000). "Fundamental principles of cognitive biology." Evolution and cognition 6.1: 51-69. Evolution and Cognition was published by the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research (KLI) from 1995-2004. That journal was succeeded by a journal titled Biological Theory: Integrating Development, Evolution and Cognition. The paper is archived at this URL < http://www.biocenter.sk/lkpublics_files/C-7.pdf >. * Kováč, Ladislav (2006a). “Life, chemistry, and cognition.” EMBO Reports 7, 562- 566 * Kováč, Ladislav (2006b) “Princípy molekulárnej kognície.” Kognice an umělý život VI : 215-222. Translation: “Principles of Molecular Cognition.” Cognition and Artificial Life VI: pp. 215–222 * Kovác, Ladislav (2007). "Information and Knowledge in Biology: Time for Reappraisal.” Plant Signaling & Behavior 2:2, 65-73 * Kovác, Ladislav (2008). "Bioenergetics: A key to brain and mind." 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The mind, the body, and the world: psychology after cognitivism?. Imprint Academic, 2007 * Mandler, George (2002). "Origins of the cognitive (r)evolution". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 38 (4): 339–353. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10066.. * Margolis, Eric, Richard Samuels, and Stephen P. Stich, editors (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Cognitive Science. Oxford University Press. * Maturana, Humberto R. (1970). “Biology of Cognition.” Biological Computer Laboratory Research Report BCL 9.0. Urbana IL: University of Illinois. Reprinted in: Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living. Dordecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1980, pp. 5–58. * Miller, George A. "The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective." Trends in cognitive sciences 7.3 (2003): 141-144. * Prigogine, Ilya (1980). From Being to Becoming. Freeman, San Francisco. * Shapiro, J.A. (2007). “Bacteria are small but not stupid: cognition, natural genetic engineering and socio-bacteriology.” Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. & Biomed. Sci., Vol. 38: 807–819. * Shapiro, J.A. (2011). Evolution: A View from the 21st Century, FT Press Science, NJ, USA. * Spetch, Marcia L., and Alinda Friedman (2006). "Comparative cognition of object recognition." Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews 1: 12-35. * Spitzer, Jan, and Bert Poolman (2009). "The role of biomacromolecular crowding, ionic strength, and physicochemical gradients in the complexities of life's emergence." Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 73.2: 371-388. * Stahlberg, Rainer (2006) “Historical Overview on Plant Neurobiology.” Plant Signaling & Behavior 1:1, 6-8. * Stotz, Karola, and Colin Allen. "From cell-surface receptors to higher learning: A whole world of experience." In Philosophy of behavioral * biology, pp. 85–123. Springer Netherlands, 2012. * Tommasi, Luca, Mary A. Peterson, and Lynn Nadel, eds. (2009). Cognitive Biology: Evolutionary and Developmental Perspectives on Mind, Brain and Behavior. The MIT Press. * Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods in ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 410-433. * Van Duijn, Marc, Fred Keijzer, and Daan Franken. "Principles of minimal cognition: Casting cognition as sensorimotor coordination." Adaptive Behavior14.2 (2006): 157-170. * Von Eckardt, Barbara. What is cognitive science?. MIT press, 1995. * Wasserman, Edward A. (1993). "Comparative cognition: Beginning the second century of the study of animal intelligence." Psychological Bulletin 113.2: 211 * Webster, Gerry, and Brian C. Goodwin (1982). "The origin of species: a structuralist approach." Journal of Social and Biological Structures 5.1: 15-47. * Webster, Gerry, and Brian Goodwin (1996). Form and transformation: generative and relational principles in biology. Cambridge University Press. * Whitehead, Alfred North. (1929). Process and Reality. Cambridge University Press. * WIRES (Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews) http://wires.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ (2013). Wiley Online Library. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. * Zentall, Thomas R., Edward A. Wasserman, Olga F. Lazareva, Roger KR Thompson, and Mary Jo Rattermann (2008). "Concept learning in animals." Comp Cogn Behav Rev 3: 13-45.

External links

European Network for the Advancement of Artificial Cognitive Systems, Interaction and Robotics

Comparative Cognition and Behavior Reviews

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