Antalya Antalya is the fifth-most populous city in Turkey and the capital of Antalya Province. Recognized as the "capital of tourism" in Turkey and a pivotal part of the Turkish Riviera, Antalya sits on Anatolia's southwest coast, flanked by the Tau ...

İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...

Adana Adana is a large city in southern Turkey. The city is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the northeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the administrative seat of the Adana Province, Adana province, and has a population of 1 81 ...

Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...

continental Continental may refer to: Places * Continental, Arizona, a small community in Pima County, Arizona, US * Continental, Ohio, a small town in Putnam County, US Arts and entertainment * ''Continental'' (album), an album by Saint Etienne * Continen ...

Bitlis Bitlis ( or ; ) is a city in southeastern Turkey. It is the seat of Bitlis District and Bitlis Province.rain-shadowed areas are

semi-arid A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a aridity, dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below Evapotranspiration#Potential evapotranspiration, potential evapotranspiration, but not as l ...

. On higher elevations, plateaus that nevertheless allow permanent settlement, like

Kars Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...

and

Ardahan Ardahan ( ka, არტაანი, tr; ; Russian: Ардаган) is a city in northeastern Turkey, near the Georgian border. It is the seat of Ardahan Province and Ardahan District.subalpine Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...

, with frigid, snowy winters, and mild, rainy summers. Dry summers in the south and west, along with moderate aridity in the interior makes the country vulnerable to climate change.

Regions

Mediterranean climates

"True" Mediterranean climate

A "true", or rather eu-Mediterranean (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Csa'', Trewartha: '' Cs'') climate exists on sea level from the coasts of

Antakya Antakya (), Turkish form of Antioch, is a municipality and the capital Districts of Turkey, district of Hatay Province, Turkey. Its area is . Prior to the devastating 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes, 2023 earthquakes, its population was recorded ...

to around

Muğla Muğla () is a city in southwestern Turkey. The city is the center of the district of Menteşe, Muğla, Menteşe and Muğla Province, which stretches along Turkey's Aegean Sea, Aegean coast. Muğla's center is situated inland at an altitude of ...

, and north to around

Manisa Manisa () is a city in Turkey's Aegean Region and the administrative seat of Manisa Province, lying approximately 40 km northeast of the major city of İzmir. The city forms the urban part of the districts Şehzadeler and Yunusemre, with ...

, which is generally considered to be its northern limit. Average temperatures range between ; winters have means around , while summers have mean temperatures between . Precipitation amounts to around , all of it rain. Summers get almost no rain, while winters receive plentiful, and sometimes copious amounts of it. Winter precipitation depends on local topography, with enclosed bays of convergent air, such as

Antalya Antalya is the fifth-most populous city in Turkey and the capital of Antalya Province. Recognized as the "capital of tourism" in Turkey and a pivotal part of the Turkish Riviera, Antalya sits on Anatolia's southwest coast, flanked by the Tau ...

, getting almost twice the amount of rain as storm-protected areas such as

Mersin Mersin () is a large city and port on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast of Mediterranean Region, Turkey, southern Turkey. It is the provincial capital of the Mersin Province (formerly İçel). It is made up of four district governorates ...

. Mountains around the region still show the Mediterranean rainfall pattern, but have mild summers and below-freezing temperatures during winter, creating a zone which may be termed oro-Mediterranean.

Pre-Mediterranean climate

A pre-Mediterranean climate (,

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Csa'', Trewartha: '' Cs''/'' Do''/'' Dc'') exists in relatively continental areas influenced by the Mediterranean climatic system, notably around the inner Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia. Average temperatures range between with winter means around , and summers as hot as (or hotter than) the Mediterranean. Rainfall follows the general pattern of the Mediterranean region, but sunshine is sometimes noticeably lower, and precipitation amounts are lower than the Mediterranean region, between . Snow can also fall in this area, unlike the coastal Mediterranean region.

Transitional zone

Marmara dry-summer temperate climate

The climate around the

Marmara Sea The Sea of Marmara, also known as the Sea of Marmora or the Marmara Sea, is a small inland sea entirely within the borders of Turkey. It links the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea via the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, separating Turkey's E ...

(,

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Csa''/'' Csb''/'' Cfa''/''

Cfb CFB may refer to: *College football, in the United States *Canadian Forces base, military installation of the Canadian forces * Caminho de Ferro de Benguela, railway in Angola *Carrollton-Farmers Branch Independent School District *Cipher feedback, ...

'', Trewartha: '' Cs''/ ''Cf''/'' Do'') is complex, transitional and often microclimatic. It wraps around the sea, covering

Bursa Bursa () is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region, Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most of ...

,

Bilecik Bilecik is a city in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Bilecik Province and Bilecik District.İzmit İzmit () is a municipality and the capital Districts of Turkey, district of Kocaeli Province, Turkey. Its area is 480 km2, and its population is 376,056 (2022). The capital of Kocaeli Province, it is located at the Gulf of İzmit in the Sea ...

and

İstanbul Istanbul is the largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population over , it is home to 18% of the population of Turkey. Istanbul is among the largest cities in Europe and in th ...

, as well as

Tekirdağ Tekirdağ () is a city in northwestern Turkey. It is located on the north coast of the Sea of Marmara, in the region of East Thrace. The city forms the urban part of the Süleymanpaşa district, with a population of 186,421 in 2022. Tekirdağ ...

. Often of a meso- or supra-Mediterranean quality at sea-level; its vegetation at sea level is similar to the lower mountains of the "true" Mediterranean region, with heat-tolerant broadleaf oaks and occasional mesophilous trees, such as

beech Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...

. Therefore, it is generally considered mild-temperate and not

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones immediately to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Ge ...

in Turkish sources and furthermore, Bohn, in a survey of European vegetation and climate, calls the climate ''sub-continental sub-Mediterranean''. Its average temperatures range around at sea level. Its summers are generally cool for the Mediterranean, but warm for

oceanic climate An oceanic climate, also known as a marine climate or maritime climate, is the temperate climate sub-type in Köppen climate classification, Köppen classification represented as ''Cfb'', typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of co ...

s, with means around , varying on a microclimatic level. Winter means range between , with a noticeable decrease further inland. Precipitation amounts to . Winters are very cloudy, with the amount of rainy days far surpassing much of Europe; while snow falls occasionally, often with sea-effect. Summers are moderately dry, but feature occasional thunderstorms, sometimes severe; along with the Black Sea climatic region further east, areas around the Marmara Sea have their peak thunderstorm activity in early and late summer. Mountains here often quickly transition into

subalpine Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...

climates, most notably

Uludağ Uludağ (), the ancient Mysian or Bithynian Olympus ( Greek: Όλυμπος), is a mountain in Bursa Province, Turkey, with an elevation of . In Turkish, ''Uludağ'' means "great mountain". In ancient times the range of which it is a part, e ...

.

Thracian sub-humid climate

Inland regions northwest of the Marmara Sea have a transitional, sub-humid climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Csa''/'' Cfa'', Trewartha: '' Cs''/ ''Cf''/'' Do''), with average temperatures matching those of the Marmara Sea, albeit with colder, snowier winters and hotter summers. The vegetation here is pre-steppic, mostly

oak savanna An oak savanna is a type of savanna (or lightly forested grassland), where oaks (''Quercus ''spp.) are the dominant trees. It is also generally characterized by an understory that is lush with grass and herb-related plants. The terms "oakery" or ...

. This area does have similarities to the pre-Mediterranean climate further south, but its lower sunshine, light winter precipitation and milder, wetter summers distinguish the two. The area's thunderstorm season peaks in May and early June, resulting in a slightly earlier season than that of the Marmara Sea.

Humid maritime climates

Western Pontic climate

A mild, humid temperate climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Cfa''/''

Cfb CFB may refer to: *College football, in the United States *Canadian Forces base, military installation of the Canadian forces * Caminho de Ferro de Benguela, railway in Angola *Carrollton-Farmers Branch Independent School District *Cipher feedback, ...

'', Trewartha: ''Cf''/'' Do'') exists from the northern coast of Istanbul to

İnebolu İnebolu is a town and district of the Kastamonu Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is from Istanbul by road and north of Kastamonu. It is a typical Black Sea port town with many fine examples of traditional domestic architecture. It ...

, at sea level around the coast of the

Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal sea, marginal Mediterranean sea (oceanography), mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bound ...

. Its vegetation is deciduous broadleaf, and resembles the supra-Mediterranean zone at sea level, although it is part of a different floristic zone, specifically the

Euxinic Euxinia or euxinic conditions occur when water is both wikt:anoxic, anoxic and wikt:sulfidic, sulfidic. This means that there is no oxygen (O2) and a raised level of free hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Euxinic bodies of water are frequently strongly strat ...

one. Its average temperatures range around at sea level, with summer means around and winter means around . Rainfall is well-distributed and quite frequent, generally around with a spring drying pattern, instead of a summer-dry one. Winter snowfall is about the same amount as the Marmara region, but winter means are raised by

Foehn A Foehn, or Föhn (, , , ), is a type of dry, relatively warm downslope wind in the lee of a mountain range. It is a rain shadow wind that results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air that has dropped most of its moisture on windw ...

winds.

Central Pontic climate

In sheltered locations around

Sinop Sinop can refer to: * Sinop, Turkey, a city on the Black Sea ** Sinop Nuclear Power Plant, was planned in 2013, but cancelled in 2018 ** Battle of Sinop, 1853 naval battle in the Sinop port *** Russian ship ''Sinop'', Russian ships named after the ...

and

Samsun Samsun is a List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, city on the north coast of Turkey and a major Black Sea port. The urban area recorded a population of 738,692 in 2022. The city is the capital of Samsun Province which has a population of ...

, the climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Cfa'', Trewartha: ''Cf'') is noticeably drier and warmer than the Western Pontic zone, but somewhat cooler, and much drier than the Eastern Pontic zone. Meso-Mediterranean vegetation resurfaces here, and coexists with

broadleaf forest A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological functio ...

. Average temperatures range around , with summer means around and winter means around . Rainfall follows the general distribution of the region, but the area is less humid than expected in all seasons.

Eastern Pontic climate

As the Black Sea coast assumes a southwest-northeast direction once again, rainfall increases, and forms the near-subtropical, extremely humid climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Cfa'', Trewartha: ''Cf'') prevalent in the eastern Black Sea region. Featuring

temperate rainforests Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain. Temperate rainforests occur in oceanic moist regions around the world: the Pacific temperate rainforests of Nor ...

, its temperatures are very slightly warmer than the transitional zone further west, but rainfall in this region is nearly constant in frequency, varying only by intensity. Rainfall amounts are also quite copious at , with a spring drying pattern. Some parts of the region get below 1,200 hours of sunshine, values far below Western Europe and more comparable to subpolar regions. Mountains in this region have a perhumid,

alpine climate Alpine climate is the typical climate for elevations above the tree line, where trees fail to grow due to cold. This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate. Definition There are multiple definitions of alpine cli ...

with verdant meadows () alternating with

krummholz ''Krummholz'' (, "crooked, bent, twisted" and ''Holz'', "wood") — also called ''knieholz'' ("knee timber") — is a type of stunted, deformed vegetation encountered in the subarctic and subalpine tree line landscapes, shaped by continual e ...

and

boreal forests Taiga or tayga ( ; , ), also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. The taiga, or boreal forest, is the world's largest land biome. In North Ame ...

.

Continental climates

Pre-Pontic sub-humid continental climate

Between the humid Pontic climate and semi-arid conditions further inland, a sub-humid to humid continental climate (,

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: ''

Dfb DFB may refer to: Music * Dem Franchize Boyz, an Atlanta hip hop group * Dysfunctional Family BBQ, a New York festival Sport * DFB-Pokal, a football cup competition in Germany Organisations * Furka Steam Railway (), Switzerland * German Footbal ...

'', Trewartha: '' Dc'') exists, most notably near

Kastamonu Kastamonu, formerly Kastamone/Castamone () and Kastamon/Castamon (), is a city in northern Turkey. It is the seat of Kastamonu Province and Kastamonu District.

. Average temperatures range around , with means of during the hottest month and winter means just below the freezing mark. Rainfall is around , with a spring storm season.

Northeastern high-continental climate

In the far-northeast of the country, often in elevations above , the summerly drying trend is no longer observed, and a unique, high-continental climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: ''

Dfb DFB may refer to: Music * Dem Franchize Boyz, an Atlanta hip hop group * Dysfunctional Family BBQ, a New York festival Sport * DFB-Pokal, a football cup competition in Germany Organisations * Furka Steam Railway (), Switzerland * German Footbal ...

''/'' Dfc'', Trewartha: '' Dc''/'' Ec'') forms near

Kars Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...

and

Ardahan Ardahan ( ka, არტაანი, tr; ; Russian: Ардаган) is a city in northeastern Turkey, near the Georgian border. It is the seat of Ardahan Province and Ardahan District.Anti-Taurus The Anti-Taurus Mountains (from ) or Aladaglar are a mountain range in southern and eastern Turkey, curving northeast from the Taurus Mountains. At , Mount Erciyes ( Turkish: Erciyes Dağı) is the highest peak not just in the range but in cen ...

and

Zagros Mountains The Zagros Mountains are a mountain range in Iran, northern Iraq, and southeastern Turkey. The mountain range has a total length of . The Zagros range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of s ...

, south of the

Armenian highlands The Armenian highlands (; also known as the Armenian upland, Armenian plateau, or Armenian tableland)Robert Hewsen, Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: ...

and, in general, near the continental foothills of the southern

Alpide belt The Alpide belt or Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt,K.M. Storetvedt, K. M., ''The Tethys Sea and the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt; mega-elements in a new global tectonic system,'' Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, Volume 62, Issues 1 ...

in Turkey, an orographically-induced rainbelt forms a Mediterranean-influenced continental climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: '' Dsa''/'' Dsb'', Trewartha: '' Dc''), high in precipitation. Temperatures average around with winter means around and summer temperatures averaging between . Precipitation is heaviest in early-spring, with totals above . Winters are very snowy. Despite this high precipitation, summer aridity keep the vegetation of the area pre-steppic.

Semi-arid continental climate

In drier areas of Central and

Eastern Anatolia The Eastern Anatolia region () is a geographical region of Turkey. The most populous province in the region is Van Province. Other populous provinces are Malatya, Erzurum and Elazığ. It is bordered by the Black Sea Region and Georgia in th ...

, a semi-arid, occasionally sub-humid climate (

Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Bernd Köppen (1951–2014), German pianist and composer * Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan * Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author ...

: ''

BSk BSK is a three-letter abbreviation that may refer to: Sports * OFK Beograd, Serbian football club * FK BSK Borča, Serbian football club * FK BSK Batajnica, Serbian football club * FK BSK Banja Luka, Bosnian-Herzegovinian football club * FK BSK ...

''/'' Dsa'', Trewartha: '' BS''/'' Dc'') takes hold, due to extensive rain-shadowing from all sides. Here, summer means range around , while winter means are around freezing, averaging out to around . Precipitation is scarce at around , and heaviest in late-spring.

Climate change

References and notes

{{Europe topic, Climate of

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

Regions

Mediterranean climates

"True" Mediterranean climate

Pre-Mediterranean climate

Transitional zone

Marmara dry-summer temperate climate

Thracian sub-humid climate

Humid maritime climates

Western Pontic climate

Central Pontic climate

Eastern Pontic climate

Continental climates

Pre-Pontic sub-humid continental climate

Northeastern high-continental climate

Semi-arid continental climate

Climate change

See also

References and notes