Chemical Weapon Proliferation
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Many nations continue to research and/or stockpile
chemical weapon A chemical weapon (CW) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), this can be any chemical compound intended as ...
agents despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them. Most states have joined the
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
(CWC), which required the destruction of all chemical weapons by 2012. Twelve nations have declared chemical weapons production facilities and six nations have declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. All of the declared production facilities have been destroyed or converted for civilian use after the treaty went into force.


CWC states with declared stockpiles

Of the 193 nations that have signed the CWC, states listed below have also declared stockpiles and agreed to monitored disposal and verification. In some cases, chemical weapons were used in conflict. Both military targets and civilian populations have been affected. , only North Korea is confirmed to have remaining stockpiles of chemical weapons. * Iraq * Japan * Libya * Russia * Syria * United States


Details by state


Albania

Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
, as a party of the Chemical Weapons Convention, declared a stockpile of 16 tons of chemical weapons in 2007. On July 11, 2007, with the help of the U.S. government's
Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction As the collapse of the Soviet Union appeared imminent, the United States and their NATO allies grew concerned of the risk of nuclear weapons held in the Soviet republics falling into enemy hands. The Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program wa ...
program, the Ministry of Defence announced the successful destruction of the entire stockpile.


Angola

Angola has been accused of using chemical weapons in its
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
.


China

According to the testimony from
Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research The assistant secretary of state for intelligence and research is the head of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) within the United States Department of State. Before 1986, the head of INR was the director of the Bureau of Intelligenc ...
Carl W. Ford before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, it is very probable that
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
has an advanced chemical warfare program. This includes research and development, production, and weaponization capabilities. The
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
is concerned by China's contact and willingness to share chemical weapons expertise with other states of proliferating concern, including
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and Iran. Chinese government did declare that they had a small arsenal of chemical weapons in the past but that it was destroyed before the ratifying convention. They declared only two former chemical production facilities that may have produced mustard gas and Lewisite. According to the field research conducted by Yang Pachankis from 2010 to 2022 in Beijing, however, the evidence not only supports nuclear and nuclear chemical proliferation, but also electromagnetic proliferation from cyber warfare.


Cuba

According to a
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
finding, that cited suspicious residue affecting plant and animal life during the
Cuban intervention in Angola The Cuban intervention in Angola (codenamed Operation Carlota) began on 5 November 1975, when Cuba sent combat troops in support of the communist-aligned People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) against the pro-western coalition of ...
,
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.VX was used against Angolan militants by the Cuban Army.


Egypt

Egypt did not sign the Chemical Weapons Convention and has been appearing on various lists as having an offensive chemical weapons capability and is thought to have production facilities for
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.VX,
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
and
phosgene Phosgene is an organic chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic, colorless gas; in low concentrations, its musty odor resembles that of freshly cut hay or grass. It can be thought of chemically as the double acyl chloride analog of ...
. Before the
Egypt–Israel peace treaty The Egypt–Israel peace treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., United States, on 26 March 1979, following the 1978 Camp David Accords. The Egypt–Israel treaty was signed by Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, and Menachem Begin, Prime Minist ...
of 1979, the country played a pivotal role exporting chemical weapons and related technologies to other Arab countries. It is possible that Egypt may still have limited stockpiles of chemical bombs, rockets and shells. There are numerous reasons for this belief: * Egypt is known to have used mustard gas in the
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
civil war from 1963 to 1967. * In the 1970s, Syria got their first chemical weapons from Egypt during the
Yom Kippur War The Yom Kippur War, also known as the Ramadan War, the October War, the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, or the Fourth Arab–Israeli War, was fought from 6 to 25 October 1973 between Israel and a coalition of Arab world, Arab states led by Egypt and S ...
, but they were never used in this conflict. * In the 1980s, Egypt supplied Iraq with mustard gas and nerve agents as well as related production and deployment technology. In testimony before the Subcommittee on Seapower: Strategic and Critical Materials in 1991,
US Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the naval warfare, maritime military branch, service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is the world's most powerful navy with the largest Displacement (ship), displacement, at 4.5 millio ...
Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks cited this evidence in identifying Egypt as a "probable" country to have chemical weapons. Recent analyses are more careful estimating the current status of a chemical weapons program in Egypt. Only one facility has been identified as "likely involved" in the offensive activities. Although the offensive program may be still in existence, it does not seem that Egypt has a considerable stockpile of operational weapons.


Ethiopia

In 1991 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Ethiopia before the Congress as a "probability" to have chemical weapons possession. Ethiopia did ratify the CWC in 1996 and did not declare an offensive chemical weapons program. Since then, no evidence has been presented to contradict this statement.


India

On January 14, 1993, India became one of the original nations to sign the CWC. India declared its stock of chemical weapons in June 1997 which included 1,044 tonnes of sulfur mustard in its possession. In 2005, of the six nations that declared stockpiles of chemical weapons, India was the only one to meet their deadline for the destruction of chemical weapons and inspection of its facilities by the OPCW. By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons and material stockpile. They were granted an extension to destroy the remainder by April 2009. On May 14, 2009, India informed the United Nations that it had completely destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons.


Iran

Near the end of the
Iran–Iraq War The Iran–Iraq War, also known as the First Gulf War, was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988. Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for nearly eight years, unti ...
,
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
was suspected to have made limited use of chemical weapons in response to multiple chemical attacks by Iraq. The delivery vehicles Iran supposedly had in their possession included artillery shells, mortars, rockets and aerial bombs. According to the
Center for Strategic and International Studies The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is an American think tank based in Washington, D.C. From its founding in 1962 until 1987, it was an affiliate of Georgetown University, initially named the Center for Strategic and Inte ...
, a Washington D.C.–based
think tank A think tank, or public policy institute, is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governme ...
, Iran currently has at least two major facilities for the research and production of chemical weapons. Iran began their production of nerve agents no later than 1994. The accuracy of these claims has not been verified. Iran signed the
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
on January 13, 1993, and ratified it on November 3, 1997. They deny allegations of having a clandestine CW program in violation of CWC. In the official declaration submitted to OPCW, the Iranian government admitted that it produced mustard gas in 1980s but ceased the offensive program and destroyed stockpiles of operational weapons after the end of the war with Iraq.


Iraq

Well before
Operation Desert Storm Operation or Operations may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity * Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory * ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Man ...
or the U.N. inspections that followed it, Iraq had already begun to build chemical weapons. After launching a research effort in the 1970s, Iraq was able to use chemical weapons in their war against Iran and to kill large numbers of their own Kurdish population in the 1980s. On June 28, 1987, in Sardasht, during two separate attacks on four residential areas, an estimated as 10 civilians were killed and 650 civilians injured. Iraq used an excessive amount of chemical weapons during
Iran–Iraq War The Iran–Iraq War, also known as the First Gulf War, was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988. Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for nearly eight years, unti ...
.
Kurdish people Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
were victims of chemical weapons. Iraq used
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
in an attack against
Kurdish people Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
on March 16, 1988, during the
Halabja chemical attack The Halabja massacre ( ) took place in Iraqi Kurdistan on 16 March 1988, when thousands of Kurds were killed by a large-scale Iraqi chemical weapons program, Iraqi chemical attack. A targeted attack in Halabja, it was carried out during the Anfa ...
. The attack killed between 3,200 and 5,000 people and injured 7,000 to 10,000 more, most of them civilians. During
Iraqi chemical attacks against Iran During the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Ba'athist Iraq, Iraq engaged in chemical warfare against Iran on multiple occasions, including more than 30 targeted attacks on Iranian civilians. Iran employed its own chemical warfare against Iraq on ...
, many Iranian military forces were killed by
nerve agents Nerve agents, sometimes also called nerve gases, are a class of organic chemicals that disrupt the mechanisms by which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by the blocking of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme that ...
. At the time, the attacks were actively supported by the United States. During the first Gulf War, there were fears that Iraq would launch chemical-tipped missiles at its neighbors, particularly Israel, but Iraq refrained for fear of U.S. retaliation. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, coalition troops again feared they might be hit with chemical weapons, though this did not happen. In 1991, as part of the 1991 Gulf War
ceasefire A ceasefire (also known as a truce), also spelled cease-fire (the antonym of 'open fire'), is a stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions often due to mediation by a third party. Ceasefires may b ...
agreement, the United Nations passed Resolution 687 that established the Special Commission (
UNSCOM United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) was an inspection regime created by the United Nations to ensure Iraq's compliance with policies concerning Iraqi production and use of weapons of mass destruction after the Gulf War. Between 1991 and 19 ...
). The UNSCOM was charged with the task of destroying, removing or rendering harmless "all chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities." By the time UNSCOM left Iraq in December 1998, it had destroyed a large portion of Iraq's chemical weapon potential. UNSCOM had overseen the destruction or incapacitation of more than 88,000 filled or unfilled chemical munitions, over 600 tons of weaponized or bulk chemical agents, 4,000 tons of precursor chemicals, 980 pieces of key production equipment and 300 pieces of analytical equipment. Notwithstanding these extraordinary achievements, the uncertainties regarding Iraq's possession of chemical weapons, their precursors and munitions remain. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons that oversee destruction measures, announced that "The government of Iraq has deposited their accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention with the Secretary General of the United Nations and within 30 days, on 12 February 2009, will become the 186th State to the Convention". Iraq also declared stockpiles of CW. Because of their recent accession, will be the only State Party exempted from the destruction time-line. On September 7, 2011, Hoshyar Zebari entered the OPCW headquarters, becoming the first Iraqi Foreign Minister to officially visit since the country joined the CWC.


Israel

In 2015,
Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
signed but did not ratify the Chemical Weapons Convention. According to the Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, Israel has significant stores of chemical weapons they manufactured themselves. They have a highly developed chemical and
petrochemical industry file:Jampilen Petrochemical Co. 02.jpg, 300px, Jampilen Petrochemical co., Asaluyeh, Iran The petrochemical industry is concerned with the production and trade of petrochemicals. A major part is constituted by the plastics industry, plastics (poly ...
, skilled specialists and stocks of source material. They are capable of producing several nerve, blister and incapacitating weapons. A 2005 report from the
Swedish Defence Research Agency The Swedish Defence Research Agency (, FOI; literal translation: ''Total Defence Research Institute'') is a government agency in Sweden for total defence research and development. FOI has its headquarters in Kista (Stockholm). Other FOI offic ...
concluded that Israel was probably not actively producing "traditional" chemical weapons but might have a functional stockpile of previously produced material. Assessment of Israeli chemical weapons capabilities were redacted from declassified U.S. documents. Although Israel did sign the CWC, it has not ratified the treaty and therefore is not officially bound by its provisions. Beliefs are that Israel has a significant stockpile of chemical weapons, likely to be the most abundant in the Middle-East according to the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service. A 1983 CIA report stated that Israel, after "finding itself surrounded by front-line Arab states with budding chemical weapon capabilities, became increasingly conscious of its vulnerability to chemical attack ... undertook a program of chemical warfare preparations in both offensive and protective areas ... In late 1982, a probable CW nerve agent production facility and a storage facility were identified at the Dimona Sensitive Storage Area in the Negev Desert. Other CW agent production is believed to exist within a well-developed Israeli chemical industry." In 1974, in a hearing before the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, General Almquist stated that Israel had an offensive chemical weapons capability. In 1992, El Al Flight 1862 bound for
Tel Aviv Tel Aviv-Yafo ( or , ; ), sometimes rendered as Tel Aviv-Jaffa, and usually referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel. Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a popula ...
crashed outside
Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , ; ; ) is the capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024 within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the City Re ...
. During the course of the crash investigation, fifty gallons of dimethyl methylphosphonate was found in the plane's cargo. Dimethyl methylphosphonate is a CWC schedule 2 chemical that can be used in the production of the nerve agent
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.Israel Institute for Biological Research in
Ness Ziona Ness Ziona (, ''Nes Tziyona'') is a city in Central District (Israel), Central District, Israel. In it had a population of , and its jurisdiction was 15,579 dunams (). Identification Lying within Ness Ziona's city bounds is the ruin of the Arab ...
, a top-secret military installation outside
Tel Aviv Tel Aviv-Yafo ( or , ; ), sometimes rendered as Tel Aviv-Jaffa, and usually referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel. Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a popula ...
. The facility was also responsible for producing the poison used in a September 1997 assassination attempt on a leader of the Palestinian militant organization
Hamas The Islamic Resistance Movement, abbreviated Hamas (the Arabic acronym from ), is a Palestinian nationalist Sunni Islam, Sunni Islamism, Islamist political organisation with a military wing, the Qassam Brigades. It has Gaza Strip under Hama ...
(
Khaled Mashal Khaled Mashal (, ; born 28 May 1956) is a Palestinian politician who served as the second chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau from 1996 until May 2017, when he was succeeded by Ismail Haniyeh. He has also covered duties as the acting lea ...
). According to Israeli officials, the substance was destined for defensive research purposes, to test filters for gas masks. This shipment came from a US chemical plant to the IIBR under a
US Department of Commerce The United States Department of Commerce (DOC) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government. It is responsible for gathering data for business and governmental decision making, establishing industrial standards, catalyzing econo ...
license. The 1993 the
U.S. Congress The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is a bicameral legislature, including a lower body, the U.S. House of Representatives, and an upper body, the U.S. Senate. They both ...
Office of Technology Assessmen
WMD proliferation assessment
recorded Israel as a country known to have undeclared offensive chemical warfare capabilities. In October 1998, the London ''
Sunday Times ''The Sunday Times'' is a British Sunday newspaper whose circulation makes it the largest in Britain's quality press market category. It was founded in 1821 as ''The New Observer''. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of N ...
'' reported that Israeli
F-16 The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is an American single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it e ...
fighters were equipped to carry chemical weapons and that their crews have been trained on the use of such weapons.


Japan

Japan both used and stored chemical weapons on the territory of
mainland China "Mainland China", also referred to as "the Chinese mainland", is a Geopolitics, geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addit ...
between 1937 and 1945. They left approximately two million tons of chemical weapons in China at the end of the war. The weapons mostly contained a mustard gas-lewisite mixture. They are classified as ''abandoned chemical weapons'' under the CWC. The destruction of the weapons under a joint Japan-China program started in September 2010, in
Nanjing Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400. Situated in the Yang ...
using mobile destruction facilities. During December 1993,
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and ratified the CWC in 1995. The
JSDF The are the military forces of Japan. Established in 1954, the JSDF comprises the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. They are controlled by the Ministry of Defense wi ...
does have chemical weapon facilities and samples to use in the development of protection against chemical weapons. The JGSDF Central NBC protection Troop admitted having samples of sarin in 1995.


Libya

Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...
produced limited quantities of chemical weapons during the 1980s and is known to have used these weapons in combat at least once when they attempted to use chemical weapons against
Chad Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North Africa, North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to Chad–Libya border, the north, Sudan to Chad–Sudan border, the east, the Central Afric ...
ian troops in 1987. Since then, Libya constructed what is believed to be the largest chemical weapon production facility in the developing world in the Rabta industrial complex. This facility was the cornerstone of the Libyan CW program and has produced mustard gas, sarin, and phosgene since production began in the late 1980s. In March 1990 a suspicious fire broke out there following accusations by the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. Strict
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
sanctions from 1992 to 1999 rendered Rabta inactive. Libya used chemical weapons, under
Muammar Gaddafi Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi (20 October 2011) was a Libyan military officer, revolutionary, politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until Killing of Muammar Gaddafi, his assassination by Libyan Anti-Gaddafi ...
's regime, in a war with
Chad Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North Africa, North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to Chad–Libya border, the north, Sudan to Chad–Sudan border, the east, the Central Afric ...
. In 2003, Gaddafi agreed to accede to the CWC in exchange for "
rapprochement In international relations, a rapprochement, which comes from the French word ''rapprocher'' ("to bring together"), is a re-establishment of cordial relations between two countries. This may be done due to a mutual antagonist, as the German Empire ...
" with western nations. At the time of the Libyan uprising against Gaddafi, Libya still controlled approximately 11.25 tons of poisonous mustard gas. Because of destabilization, concerns increased regarding possibilities and likelihood that control of these agents could be lost. With terrorism at the core of concern, international bodies cooperated to ensure Libya is held to its obligations under the treaty. Libya's post-Gaddafi
National Transitional Council The National Transitional Council (NTC) was a transitional government established in the 2011 Libyan civil war. After rebel forces overthrew the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya of Muammar Gaddafi in August 2011, the NTC governed Libya for a further ...
is cooperating with the
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW; French: ''Organisation pour l'interdiction des armes chimiques'', OIAC) is an intergovernmental organisation and the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), ...
regarding the destruction of all legacy chemical weapons in the country. After assessing the chemical stockpiles, the Libyan government will receive a deadline from the OPCW to destroy the CW. Libya's chemical program was completely abandoned on December 19, 2003, along with their other
weapons of mass destruction A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a Biological agent, biological, chemical weapon, chemical, Radiological weapon, radiological, nuclear weapon, nuclear, or any other weapon that can kill or significantly harm many people or cause great dam ...
programs as part of a program to get sanctions lifted and normalize relations with foreign governments. In 2004, between 27 February and 3 March, Libya destroyed 3,200 chemical weapon artillery shells under supervision of the
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW; French: ''Organisation pour l'interdiction des armes chimiques'', OIAC) is an intergovernmental organisation and the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), ...
(OPCW). On 5 March 2004, Libya declared a stockpile of 23 tons of mustard gas as well as precursors for sarin and other chemicals. Libya officially acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention in June 2004. On 12 January 2018, the United States acknowledged that Libya has destroyed its remaining chemical weapons stockpile.


Myanmar

Intelligence regarding
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
's chemical weapon status is mixed, and sometimes contradictory. In the late 1990s, US naval intelligence identified Myanmar (then referred to as Burma) as developing chemical weapons capabilities. Later, other officials contradicted that statement, claiming that the evidence supporting Burma's chemical stockpile development was primarily based upon circumstantial evidence. In July 2014 five journalists in Myanmar were sentenced to ten years in jail after publishing a report saying Myanmar was planning to build a new chemical weapons plant on farmland in the country's
Magwe Region Magway Region (, ; formerly Magway Division) is an administrative division in central Myanmar. It is the second largest of Myanmar's seven divisions, with an area of . Pa-de Dam (ပဒဲဆည်) is one of the dams in Aunglan Township, Magway ...
. At an annual OPCW conference in 2019, the United States claimed Myanmar maintained a stockpile of chemical weapons dating to 1982. In November 2023, amidst a
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
, rebel groups of the Brotherhood Alliance accused the military of using chemical weapons on its forces multiple times in
Shan State Shan State (, ; , ) is a administrative divisions of Myanmar, state of Myanmar. Shan State borders China (Yunnan) to the north, Laos (Louang Namtha Province, Louang Namtha and Bokeo Provinces) to the east, and Thailand (Chiang Rai Province, Chia ...
townships. The
Arakan Army The Arakan Army (; Abbreviation, abbreviated AA), sometimes referred to as the Arakha Army is an Ethnic nationalism, ethnic-List of insurgent groups in Myanmar, armed organisation based in Rakhine State (Arakan). Founded in April 2009, the Ara ...
did the same in early December of that year in
Chin State Chin State (, ) is a state in western Myanmar. Chin State is bordered by Sagaing Division and Magway Division to the east, Rakhine State to the south, the Chattogram Division of Bangladesh to the west, and the Indian states of Mizoram to th ...
, which the military denied. Myanmar signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on 14 January 1993, and ratified the agreement on 8 July 2015. The convention entered into effect 7 August 2015.


North Korea

North Korea did not sign the CWC and is believed to have maintained an extensive chemical weapons program since the mid-1950s. The program includes research, production, stockpiling and weaponisation of large quantities of chemical agents (perhaps as many as 5,000 tons), including blister, nerve, choking, psychochemical incapacitant, vomiting and riot control agents. Several dozen facilities have been identified as likely involved in the offensive program. The production capability of these facilities is estimated as 4,500 tons of chemical agents per year. North Korean armed forces also have large quantities of delivery systems that could carry chemical warheads, including different artillery systems, aerial bombs, mines, tactical ballistic missiles (
SCUD A Scud missile is one of a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries. The term comes from the NATO reporting name attached to the m ...
), and long-range ballistic missiles ( Nodong and
Taepodong-2 The Taepodong-2 (TD-2, also spelled as Taep'o-dong 2)
Federation of American Scientists, May 30, 2008 () is a ...
systems). The technological advancement of this program is uncertain, and some sources doubt whether North Korea is able to produce large quantities of nerve agents or fit the chemical warheads on its long-range ballistic missiles. It reportedly acquired the technology necessary to produce tabun and
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
as early as the 1950s. In 2009, the
International Crisis Group The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a global non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, conducting research and analysis on global crises. ...
reported that the consensus expert view was that North Korea had a stockpile of about 2,500 to 5,000 tonnes of chemical weapons, including
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
,
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.VX.


Pakistan

Since the 1970s and 1980s, Pakistan had been suspected of running a possible military chemical weapons program both by the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
and the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. In 1991, Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Pakistan as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress. In 1992, India and Pakistan signed a bilateral arms control treaty of chemical weapons that requires both countries to make a commitment to not develop, possess or use chemical weapons. On January 13, 1993, Pakistan became an original signatory of
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
(CWC), and ratified the treaty on November 27, 1997. Since being its signatory, the Pakistan is not known to have ever possessed a militarized chemical weapons program, and is a member in good standing of the
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW; French: ''Organisation pour l'interdiction des armes chimiques'', OIAC) is an intergovernmental organisation and the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), ...
(OPCW). Despite its good standing, Pakistan has been accused of covertly running a military chemical weapons program– the accusations were primarily made by India since 1970s. The Indian assertion was said to be primarily based on the import of toxic chemicals and metals and an assumption of absence of their use in the civilian biochemical industry. In 1999, Pakistan, addressing the Indian allegations at the United Nations, announced a mandate and regulation for all domestic chemical producers to "furnish details of the chemicals" imported or used in Pakistan.


Russia

Russia entered the CWC with the largest declared stockpile of chemical weapons in the world. By 2010 the country had destroyed 18,241
tonnes The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000  kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the s ...
at destruction facilities located in Gorny (
Saratov Oblast Saratov Oblast is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject of Russia (an oblast), located in the Volga Federal District. Its administrative center is the types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Saratov. As of the 2021 Russian cens ...
) and Kambarka (
Udmurt Republic Udmurtia, officially the Udmurt Republic, is a republic of Russia located in Eastern Europe. It is administratively part of the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Izhevsk. It was established as the Udmurt (until 1931 — Vots ...
), where operations have finished and Shchuchye (
Kurgan Oblast Kurgan Oblast () is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Kurgan. According to the 2021 Census, the population was 776,661, down from 910,807 recorded in the 2010 Census. History Formed by De ...
), Maradykovsky (
Kirov Oblast Kirov Oblast ( rus, Кировская область, p=ˈkʲirəfskəjə ˈobləsʲtʲ) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) located in Eastern Europe. Its administrative center is the city of Kirov. As of the 2010 census, the population ...
), (
Penza Oblast Penza Oblast () is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Penza. As of the Russian Census (2010), 2010 Census, its population was  ...
) while installations are under construction in Pochep (
Bryansk Oblast Bryansk Oblast (), also known as Bryanshchina (, ), is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Bryansk. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 1,169,161. Geography Bryansk Oblast lies in weste ...
) and Kizner (
Udmurt Republic Udmurtia, officially the Udmurt Republic, is a republic of Russia located in Eastern Europe. It is administratively part of the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Izhevsk. It was established as the Udmurt (until 1931 — Vots ...
). By 2016, Russia destroyed around 94% of its chemical weapons and planned to completely destroy its remaining stockpile by the end of 2018. On September 27, 2017, Russia announced the destruction of the last batch of chemical weapons, completing the total destruction of its chemical arsenal ahead of schedule. On March 4, 2018, Russia was alleged to have conducted a chemical attack in
Salisbury Salisbury ( , ) is a city status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and civil parish in Wiltshire, England with a population of 41,820, at the confluence of the rivers River Avon, Hampshire, Avon, River Nadder, Nadder and River Bourne, Wi ...
, England, that left five injured including the alleged target of the attack, Sergei Skripal. Russia destroyed about 25,000 metric tons of chemical weapons, or 62 percent of its 40,000-ton stockpile as of April 29, 2012 – the deadline set by the Chemical Weapons Convention for complete arsenal destruction. Russia expected 2020 to be more realistic but according to Russia, they fully destroyed their arsenal weapons on September 27, 2017.


Serbia and Montenegro

The former
Yugoslavia , common_name = Yugoslavia , life_span = 1918–19921941–1945: World War II in Yugoslavia#Axis invasion and dismemberment of Yugoslavia, Axis occupation , p1 = Kingdom of SerbiaSerbia , flag_p ...
is known to have produced a variety of chemical weapons (CW). The majority of stockpiled CW is believed to have been inherited by its successor,
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
. Reports indicate that the former Yugoslavia's Army produced large quantities of
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.phosgene Phosgene is an organic chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic, colorless gas; in low concentrations, its musty odor resembles that of freshly cut hay or grass. It can be thought of chemically as the double acyl chloride analog of ...
, the incapacitant BZ (allegedly a stockpile of 300 tons) and tear gas. At least four chemical warfare production facilities have been identified in Serbia: Prva Iskra in Baric; Miloje Blagojevic in Lucani; and Milojie Zakic and Merima in Krusevac. While the Trajal plant in Krusevac has been shut down, serious questions exist about accounting and previous production and storage of chemical materials there, as well as the lack of accounting on the other three sites. Yugoslavia used its CW technologies to develop chemical munitions for
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
prior to the first
Gulf War , combatant2 = , commander1 = , commander2 = , strength1 = Over 950,000 soldiers3,113 tanks1,800 aircraft2,200 artillery systems , page = https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-PEMD-96- ...
in the "Little Hawk" program and chemical munitions for the Orkan MLRS system under the "KOL15" program. The former Yugoslavia signed the
Geneva Protocol The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in ...
in 1929. In April 2000, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia acceded to the
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
(CWC).


South Korea

Prior to 1997,
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and t ...
was strongly suspected of possessing an active chemical weapons program and was identified as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor by the United States. On April 18, 1997, South Korea signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and made a secret declaration. It is thought that South Korea is the "state party" referred to in Chemical Weapons Convention materials. There are reports that South Korea is operating a secret facility in
Yeongdong County Yeongdong County () is a county in North Chungcheong Province, South Korea. The county should not be confused with the similarly named Yeongdong region. During the Korean War, this county was the site of the No Gun Ri Massacre. Climate Yeongd ...
, Chungcheongbuk-do Province for the destruction of chemical agents.


South Sudan

In February 2016, the
Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition The Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition (Abbreviation, abbreviated SPLM-IO), also known as the anti-governmental forces (AGF), is a mainly South Sudanese political party and rebel group that split from the Sudan People's Liberation ...
accused the South Sudanese government of attacking them with chemical weapons during the
South Sudanese Civil War The South Sudanese Civil War was a multi-sided civil war in South Sudan fought from 2013 to 2020, between forces of the government and opposition forces. The civil war caused rampant human rights abuses, including forced displacement, ethnic mas ...
that was underway at the time.


Sudan

Some past reports of uncertain credibility indicated that Sudan may have used chemical weapons against the rebels in the southern part of this country. Sudan accessed to CWC in 1999 and did not declare any offensive CW program. U.S. Department of State claims that it lacks sufficient evidence to determine whether Sudan is engaged in activities prohibited by CWC.


Syria

Prior to September 2013, Syria was one of seven states not to party with the Chemical Weapons Convention. As a party to the 1925
Geneva Protocol The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in ...
, it was prohibited from using chemical weapons in war yet unhindered in their production, storage and transfer. When questioned about the topic, Syrian officials stated that they feel it is an appropriate deterrent against Israel's undeclared nuclear weapons program which they believe exists. On July 23, 2012, the Syrian government acknowledged, for the first time, that it had chemical weapons. Independent assessments indicate that Syria could have produced up to a few hundred tons of chemical agent per year. Syria reportedly manufactures the unitary agents:
Sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.Tabun, VX, and
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
. Syrian chemical weapons production facilities have been identified by Western nonproliferation experts at the following 5 sites, plus a suspected weapons base: * Al Safir (
Scud A Scud missile is one of a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries. The term comes from the NATO reporting name attached to the m ...
missile base) * Cerin * Hama * Homs * Latakia * Palmyra In July 2007, a Syrian arms depot exploded, killing at least 15 Syrians.
Jane's Defence Weekly ''Jane's Defence Weekly'' (abbreviated as ''JDW'') is a weekly magazine reporting on military and corporate affairs, edited by Peter Felstead. It is one of a number of military-related publications named after John F. T. Jane, an Englishman who ...
, a UK magazine reporting on military and corporate affairs, believed that the explosion happened when Iranian and Syrian military personnel attempted to fit a
Scud A Scud missile is one of a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries. The term comes from the NATO reporting name attached to the m ...
missile with a
mustard gas Mustard gas or sulfur mustard are names commonly used for the organosulfur compound, organosulfur chemical compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, which has the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2, as well as other Chemical species, species. In the wi ...
warhead. Syria stated that the blast was accidental and not chemical related. On July 13, 2012, the Syrian government moved its stockpile to an undisclosed location. In September 2012, information emerged that the Syrian military had begun testing chemical weapons and was reinforcing and resupplying a base housing these weapons located east of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
in August. On March 19, 2013, news emerged from Syria indicating the first use of chemical weapons since the beginning of the Syrian uprising. On August 21, 2013, testimony and photographic evidence emerged from Syria indicating a large-scale chemical weapons attack on Ghouta, a populated urban center. An agreement was reached September 14, 2013, called the Framework For Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons, leading to the elimination of Syria's chemical weapon stockpiles by mid-2014. On October 14, 2013, Syria officially acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention. On September 14, 2013, the United States and Russia announced an agreement that would lead to the elimination of Syria's chemical weapon stockpiles by mid-2014. Syria officially acceded to the CWC on October 14, but has yet to sign the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nati ...
. It is believed Syria first received chemical weapons in 1973 from Egypt in the form of artillery shells. Since then it is thought Syria has one of the most advanced chemical weapons programs in the Middle East. On December 9, 2024, the
Israeli Air Force The Israeli Air Force (IAF; , commonly known as , ''Kheil HaAvir'', "Air Corps") operates as the aerial and space warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). It was founded on May 28, 1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Indep ...
launched strikes on Syrian chemical weapon facilities following the collapse of the Assad regime. Israeli officials stated they launched the strikes in order to prevent the weapons from falling into the hands of
Islamic terrorists Islamic terrorism (also known as Islamist terrorism, radical Islamic terrorism, or jihadist terrorism) refers to terrorist acts carried out by fundamentalist militant Islamists and Islamic extremists. Since at least the 1990s, Islamist ...
. Following the strikes, the United States said that it was working with other middle eastern countries to destroy the remaining weapons. Syria's chemical arsenal Syria is thought to have amassed large quantities of
sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound.VX. Exact quantities are hard to know although the
CIA The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA; ) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States tasked with advancing national security through collecting and analyzing intelligence from around the world and ...
has estimated Syria possesses several hundred liters of chemical weapons with hundreds of tons of agents produced annually. Production Syria has four main production sites. One just north of Damascus, one near Homs, one in Hama and one, al-Safir south-east of Aleppo.


Taiwan

U.S. Congress was informed in 1989 that Taiwan could have acquired offensive chemical weapons capability, including stockpiles of sarin. The alleged facilities include Tsishan and Kuanhsi. Taiwanese authorities acknowledged only the existence of a defensive research program.


Turkey

Turkey emerged from the cold war relatively unprotected and is gravely concerned about the acquisition of weapons of mass destruction, particularly chemical weapons that have been used in the vicinity of the Turkish state. Turkey is party to both the
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
since 1997 and the
Biological Weapons Convention The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), or Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty that effectively bans Biological weapons, biological and toxin weapons by prohibiting their development, production, acquisition, ...
since 1974. Turkey has been accused of using chemical weapons in Afrin against Kurdish rebels, but the country has denied that civilians in its operation against the Kurdish YPG fighters in northwestern Syria were affected by chemical weapons from the Turkish military. The country has sharply condemned and verified some of the chemical weapons used in the Syrian civil war.


United States

The United States has used multiple types of chemical weapons both in war and in testing. For example, testing of how various chemical weapons will disperse in different climates and delivery systems during Operation LAC. Police forces periodically use CS against violent protests domestically, while use and deployment is banned in military use. The United States possessed a stockpile of chemical weapons since World War I. It banned the production or transport of chemical weapons in 1969. The U.S. began chemical weapons disposal and destruction in the 1960s, first by deep-sea burial; by the 1970s, incineration was the primary disposal method used. The use of chemical weapons was officially renounced in 1991, and the U.S. signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1993. As of July 7, 2023, the remaining stockpiles of sulfur mustard were announced to be destroyed.Stockpile Destruction Complete
PEO ACWA, July 7, 2023 The United States has completed destruction of the chemical weapons stockpile it declared in 1997, guided by RCRA regulations.Horinko, Marianne, Cathryn Courtin
“Waste Management: A Half Century of Progress.”
EPA Alumni Association. March 2016. As of 2023 complete destruction and deactivation was achieved on July 7, 2023.Army Agency Completes Mission to Destroy Chemical Weapons
, USCMA, January 21, 2012 The U.S. policy on the use of chemical weapons is to reserve the right to retaliate. First use, or preemptive use, is a violation of stated policy. Only the president of the United States can authorize the first retaliatory use. Official policy now reflects the likelihood of chemical weapons being used as a
terrorist Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war aga ...
weapon.


See also

*
Weapon of mass destruction A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a biological, chemical, radiological, nuclear, or any other weapon that can kill or significantly harm many people or cause great damage to artificial structures (e.g., buildings), natural structures ( ...
*
Commission on the Prevention of WMD proliferation and terrorism The Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism (commonly known as the Graham/Talent WMD Commission) of the United States Congress was set up "to assess, within 180 days, any and all of the nation's acti ...
*
Chemical Weapons Convention The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for ...
* Ten Threats identified by
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...


References


Resources


National Counterproliferation Center – Office of the Director of National Intelligence
* Economist. (May 2, 1997). "Chemical Weapons. Just Checking," ''The Economist 347'', p. 42. * Mahnaimi, Uzi (October 1998). "Israeli Jets Equipped for Chemical Warfare". London ''Sunday Times'' *
Monterey Institute of International Studies Established in 1955, the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey (MIIS), formerly the Monterey Institute of International Studies, located in Monterey, California, is a graduate institute and satellite campus of Middlebury C ...
. (April 9, 2002)
"Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present"
Retrieved Dec. 21, 2004. * Senate Armed Services Committee, FY 1975 "Authorization Hearing", Part 5, March 7, 1974 * Shoham, Dany (Spring–Summer 1998). "Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt". ''The Nonproliferation Review'' 5 (3): 48–58. *
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) is an international institute based in Stockholm, Sweden. It was founded in 1966 and provides data, analysis and recommendations for armed conflict, military expenditure and arms trade a ...
's research on disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation:
Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons
a useful page about non-state transfers of weapons, with links to information from CRS, the GAO and NGOs. {{DEFAULTSORT:Chemical Weapon Proliferation Chemical warfare Chemical weapons demilitarization International relations