Many words that existed in

Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...

did not survive into

Modern English Modern English, sometimes called New English (NE) or present-day English (PDE) as opposed to Middle and Old English, is the form of the English language that has been spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England England is a Count ...

. There are also many words in Modern English that bear little or no resemblance in meaning to their Old English etymons. Some

linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...

s estimate that as much as 80 percent of the

lexicon A lexicon (plural: lexicons, rarely lexica) is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word ''lexicon'' derives from Greek word () ...

of Old English was lost by the end of the

Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English pe ...

period, including many compound words, e.g. ''bōchūs'' ('bookhouse', 'library'), yet the components 'book' and 'house' were kept. Certain categories of words seem to have been more susceptible. Nearly all words relating to

sexual intercourse Sexual intercourse (also coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion of the Erection, erect male Human penis, penis inside the female vagina and followed by Pelvic thrust, thrusting motions for sexual pleasure ...

and sexual organs as well as "impolite" words for bodily functions were ignored in favor of words borrowed from

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

. The Old English synonyms are now mostly either extinct or considered crude or vulgar, such as arse/ass. Some words were forgotten while other near-

synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means precisely or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are a ...

s in Old English replaced them ('limb' remains in common use, but ''lið'' remains only dialectally as lith). Many of these changes came with the introduction of

Old Norse Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants ...

and

Norman French Norman or Norman French (, , Guernésiais: , Jèrriais: ) is a '' langue d'oïl'' spoken in the historical and cultural region of Normandy. The name "Norman French" is sometimes also used to describe the administrative languages of '' Angl ...

words, while others fell away due to natural

evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...

Animals

Modern English has no Germanic words for 'animal' in the general sense of 'non-human being'. Old English ''dēor'', ''gesceaft'', ''gesceap'', ''nēat'' and ''iht'' were all eclipsed by '

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Biology, biological Kingdom (biology), kingdom Animalia (). With few exceptions, animals heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, ...

', 'beast', 'creature' and 'critter'. *''ācweorna'':

squirrel Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae (), a family that includes small or medium-sized rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrel ...

. Displaced by Anglo-Norman esquirel and Old French escurel, from Vulgar Latin scuriolus, diminutive of scurius, variant of Latin sciurus, from Ancient Greek σκίουρος (skíouros). Compare German ''Eichhorn'', Dutch ''eekhoorn'', Icelandic ''ikorni'', Swedish ''ekorre'', Danish ''egern'', Norwegian ''ekorn''/''ikorn''. *''āðexe'': '

lizard Lizard is the common name used for all Squamata, squamate reptiles other than snakes (and to a lesser extent amphisbaenians), encompassing over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most Island#Oceanic isla ...

'. ''Lizard'' was borrowed into Middle English from Old French ''lesarde'', from Latin ''lacertus''.''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''. The earliest occurrence of the word (spelled ''lusarde'') is in the poem '' Piers Plowman'' (written about 1360–1399). Old English ''āðexe'' does survive dialectally as '' ask'' ('newt', 'eft', 'lizard'): cf. German ''Eidechse'', Dutch ''hagedis''. *''ælepūte'': ' burbot'. The

Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th [2-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...

word ''borbote'' had replaced ''ælepūte'' by the Middle English period. 'Burbot' first occurred in English around 1475. Its modern descendant, 'eelpout', is occasionally used for the burbot, although it has come to define a different animal. *''cāwelwyrm'': '

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder ...

' (see ''lēafwyrm''). *''culfre'': 'dove', 'pigeon' has survived dialectally as ' culver', which the AHD believes comes from

Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, also known as Colloquial, Popular, Spoken or Vernacular Latin, is the range of non-formal Register (sociolinguistics), registers of Latin spoken from the Crisis of the Roman Republic, Late Roman Republic onward. ''Vulgar Latin'' a ...

''colombula''. The OED acknowledges this possibility, but asserts that it is more likely native. 'Culver' is first attested in English around 825 and 'dove' around 1200. The Middle English ''dove'' is thought to come from Old English, but the assumed form (*''dūfe'') is not attested, cf. ''dūfedoppa'' below. It is most likely to have been common Germanic. *''dēor'': 'animal', 'beast'. ''Dēor'' is the etymon of English '

deer A deer (: deer) or true deer is a hoofed ruminant ungulate of the family Cervidae (informally the deer family). Cervidae is divided into subfamilies Cervinae (which includes, among others, muntjac, elk (wapiti), red deer, and fallow deer) ...

', although ''dēor'' as 'deer' is attested as early as around 893 by

Alfred the Great Alfred the Great ( ; – 26 October 899) was King of the West Saxons from 871 to 886, and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 886 until his death in 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf and his first wife Osburh, who both died when Alfr ...

. At some point in the Middle English period the more specific meaning of 'deer' became common, with the original meaning becoming lost by the end of the period. Compare German ''Tier'', Dutch ''dier'', Swedish ''djur'', Danish and Norwegian ''dyr'', Icelandic ''dýr''. *''dūfedoppa'': '

pelican Pelicans (genus ''Pelecanus'') are a genus of large water birds that make up the family Pelecanidae. They are characterized by a long beak and a large throat pouch used for catching prey and draining water from the scooped-up contents before ...

'. The word ''pelican'' was borrowed into Middle English, ultimately from Ancient Greek. *''ened'': '

duck Duck is the common name for numerous species of waterfowl in the family (biology), family Anatidae. Ducks are generally smaller and shorter-necked than swans and goose, geese, which are members of the same family. Divided among several subfam ...

', 'drake'. 'Drake' first appeared around 1300 and ''ened'' was lost thereafter. The AHD says the origin is unknown.

Old High German Old High German (OHG; ) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally identified as the period from around 500/750 to 1050. Rather than representing a single supra-regional form of German, Old High German encompasses the numerous ...

''antrahho'' seems to be a combination of ''ant'' (cognate of Old English ''ened'') and ''trahho'' (cognate of ''drake''), but the OED holds that the conjectured cognate in Old English (unattested *''andrake'') "has no basis of fact". The word ''ened'' likely has a PIE origin, compare Latin ''anas'', Lithuanian ''antis'' and Old Greek ''nēssa'' ('duck'). 'Duck' comes from a theoretical Old English word *''duce'', presumably from the verb ''ducan'' ('duck', 'dive'). Compare with the German ''Ente'', Dutch ''eend'', Common Scandinavian ''and''. *''fifalde'': '

butterfly Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran superfamily Papilionoidea, characterized by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The oldest butterfly fossi ...

'. Old English had the word ''butorflēoge'' (of dubious origin, although the ultimately Greek word "butter" is the first element) as early as 1000 which overtook the Germanic ''fifalde''. Compare with Old High German ''fîfaltarâ'', German ''Falter'', Old Saxon ''vivoldara'', Southern Dutch ''vijfwouter'', Old Norse ''fifrildi'', Icelandic ''fiðrildi'', Swedish ''fjäril''. *''firgenbucca'': '

ibex An ibex ( : ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus ''Capra''), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa. T ...

'. 'Ibex' is borrowed from Latin ''ibex'' originally written ''ibecks'' in Edward Topsell's "''The historie of foure-footed beastes''" (1607). It is a compound of ''firgen'' ('wooded height', 'mountain') (compare with Gothic ''fairguni'' ('mountain'), Old High German ''Fergunna'' ('

Ore Mountains The Ore Mountains (, or ; ) lie along the Czech–German border, separating the historical regions of Bohemia in the Czech Republic and Saxony in Germany. The highest peaks are the Klínovec in the Czech Republic (German: ''Keilberg'') at ab ...

')) and ''bucca'' ('buck') (compare with modern German ''Steinbock'', Dutch ''(alpen) steenbok'' ('ibex'), English ''stonebuck''). *''gesceaft'', ''gesceap'': 'creature'. ''Gesceap'', the etymon of English '

shape A shape is a graphics, graphical representation of an object's form or its external boundary, outline, or external Surface (mathematics), surface. It is distinct from other object properties, such as color, Surface texture, texture, or material ...

', is documented as far back as around 1050. It had many meanings in Old English: 'creature', 'creation', '

structure A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as ...

', ' form', 'figure', ' configuration', ' pudendum', '

decree A decree is a law, legal proclamation, usually issued by a head of state, judge, monarch, royal figure, or other relevant Authority, authorities, according to certain procedures. These procedures are usually defined by the constitution, Legislativ ...

' and '

destiny Destiny, sometimes also called fate (), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. Fate Although often used interchangeably, the words ''fate'' and ''destiny'' ...

'. 'Creature', ultimately from Latin, was borrowed around 1300 before the borrowing of the word 'create'. ''Gesceaft'' (' creation', 'origin', '

constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed. When these pri ...

', '

nature Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the Ecosphere (planetary), ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the Scientific law, laws, elements and phenomenon, phenomena of the physic ...

', '

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

') has the same etymological root as ''gesceap''. It is documented as early as 888 and occurs with this meaning in various forms as late as around 1579, as ''schaft''. Compare to Dutch past participle ''geschapen'' for the verb ''scheppen'' ('to shape') German ''schaffen'' ('to shape'), ''Geschöpf'' ('creature'). *''hacod'': ' mullet'. The OED lists ''hacod/haked'' as a

dialect A dialect is a Variety (linguistics), variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. This may include dominant and standard language, standardized varieties as well as Vernacular language, vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardize ...

al name for a large pike and has a citation as late as 1847, but it is not listed in any modern dictionary. 'Mullet' was borrowed into Middle English, ultimately from Ancient Greek. It is probably akin to ''haca'' ('hook'). Compare with modern English '' hake'', Dutch ''heek'' ('hake'), German ''Hechte'' ('

esox ''Esox'' is a genus of freshwater fish commonly known as pike or pickerel. It is the type genus of the family (biology), family Esocidae. The type species of the genus is ''Esox lucius'', the northern pike. ''Esox'' have a fossil record exten ...

'). *''hæferblǣte'': ' bittern'. 'Bittern' entered Middle English around 1000 as ''botor'' which was borrowed from Old French ''butor''. *''higera'': ' jay'. The Old French word ''jai'' was borrowed into Middle English around 1310. The AHD states that it may come from the Latin forename

Gaius Gaius, sometimes spelled Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen). People * Gaius (biblical figure) (1st century AD) *Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist * Gaius Acilius * Gaius Antonius * Gaius Antonius Hybrida * Gaius Asinius Gal ...

, but it gives no reason for the

semantic change Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from ...

. The OED does not address the Gaius theory, only stating that it cannot be identified with Old French ''gai'' ('gay'). It instead states that it is from

''gâhi'' ('swift', 'quick', 'lively') without mentioning the likelihood. Compare with German ''Häher''. *''hwilpe'': ' curlew'. The Middle English form ''curleu'' was borrowed from Old French ''courlieu'', which may be onomatopoeic. The OED also believes that it is probably onomatopoeic, but notes that it was assimilated with ''courlieu, curleu'' ('

courier A courier is a person or organization that delivers a message, package or letter from one place or person to another place or person. Typically, a courier provides their courier service on a commercial contract basis; however, some couriers are ...

'), which is ultimately from Latin '' currere'' ('to run'). *''iht'': 'creature'. (See ''gesceap''.) *''lēafwyrm'': '

', literally 'leaf-worm', 'leaf insect'.

Webster's Dictionary ''Webster's Dictionary'' is any of the US English language dictionaries edited in the early 19th century by Noah Webster (1758–1843), a US lexicographer, as well as numerous related or unrelated dictionaries that have adopted the Webster's n ...

(1897) lists 'leaf-worm' as "a caterpillar that devours leaves", but no modern dictionaries list it. The ''cawel'' in ''cawelwyrm'' was a loan from Latin ''caulis'' ('

cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of '' Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.& ...

') and it was last attested around 1000, as ''cawelwurm''. ''Mælsceafa'' ('caterpillar') is attested as far back as Old English (around 1000 in the writings of

Ælfric Ælfric (Old English ', Middle English ''Elfric'') is an Anglo-Saxon given name, consisting of the elements ''ælf'', "elf" and ''ric'', "a powerful person, ruler". Churchmen * Ælfric of Eynsham (c. 955–c. 1010), late 10th century Anglo-Sax ...

) and as late as 1398, as ''malshaue''. ''Mæl'' (meaning roughly '

meal A meal is an occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes consumption of food. The English names used for specific meals vary, depending on the speaker's culture, the time of day, or the size of the meal. A meal is different from a ...

' as in ' mealworm') is attested only in the compound ''mælsceafa'', but it has many well-documented

cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the s ...

s in other

Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania, and Southern Africa. The most widely spoke ...

, such as Old Icelandic and Swedish. The second component shares its root with ' shave'. The ultimately Latin-derived ''caterpillar'' was first borrowed into English around 1440 as ''catyrpel''. *''mǣlsceafa'': '

'. (See ''lēafwyrm''). Compare with Dutch ''meelworm'' (meel = flour, which it likes to eat and can be found in). *''mereswīn'': '

dolphin A dolphin is an aquatic mammal in the cetacean clade Odontoceti (toothed whale). Dolphins belong to the families Delphinidae (the oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (the Indian river dolphins), Iniidae (the New World river dolphins), Pontopori ...

', '

porpoise Porpoises () are small Oceanic dolphin, dolphin-like cetaceans classified under the family Phocoenidae. Although similar in appearance to dolphins, they are more closely related to narwhals and Beluga whale, belugas than to the Oceanic dolphi ...

', literally 'sea-swine'. It is attested in Bald's Leechbook from the 10th century. The OED does not list 'mereswine' as archaic or obsolete, but the last citation given is by Frank Charles Bowen in his ''Sea Slang: a Dictionary of the Old-timers' Expressions and Epithets'' (1929). The OED lists ''sea-swine'' ('porpoise') (the last citation being for 1884) as "obsolete except dialectic". ''Dolphin'' entered English in the 12th century: it is ultimately from Ancient Greek. Compare with Dutch ''meerzwijn'' ('harbour porpoise', lit. sea-swine) and German ''Schweinswal'' ('porpoise', literally 'pig's whale'). *''mūshāfoc'': ' buzzard', literally 'mouse-hawk'. It is not clear which

bird of prey Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as (although not the same as) raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively predation, hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and smaller birds). In addition to speed ...

was being referred to. The meanings that the OED lists for 'mouse-hawk' are

short-eared owl The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...

, hen harrier and rough-legged buzzard, but 'mouse-hawk' is an alternate name, not the main name. The Middle English word ''busard'' was borrowed around 1300, ultimately from Latin ''būtēo''. *''ryðða'': '

mastiff A mastiff is a large and powerful Dog type, type of dog. Mastiffs are among the largest dogs, and typically have a short Coat (dog), coat, a long low-set tail and large feet; the skull is large and bulky, the muzzle broad and short (brachycephal ...

'. The word ''mastiff'' was borrowed around 1387, ultimately from Latin. *''scræb'': ' cormorant'. ''Cormorant'' was borrowed around 1320 as ''cormerant'', ultimately from the Latin words for raven and

sea A sea is a large body of salt water. There are particular seas and the sea. The sea commonly refers to the ocean, the interconnected body of seawaters that spans most of Earth. Particular seas are either marginal seas, second-order section ...

. Probably akin to (or a variant of) ''scræf'' ('cormorant'). Compare with German ''Scharbe'', Common Scandinavian ''skarv''. *''sisemūs'': ' dormouse'. ''Dormouse'' (first attested in English around 1425) is not a combination of door and

mouse A mouse (: mice) is a small rodent. Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (''Mus musculus'' ...

. Some lexicographers, including the editorial staff of the AHD, believe that it came from Anglo-Norman ''dormeus'' ('inclined to sleep', 'hiberating'), which is ultimately from Latin '' dormire'' ('to sleep'). The OED, citing the Dutch words ''slaep-ratte'' ('sleep rat') and ''slaep-muys'' ('sleep mouse'), acknowledges the possibility of this derivation, but also suggests that the first element is akin to

''dár'' ('benumbed'). *''wōrhana'', ''wildhænn'': '

pheasant Pheasants ( ) are birds of several genera within the family Phasianidae in the order Galliformes. Although they can be found all over the world in introduced (and captive) populations, the pheasant genera's native range is restricted to Eura ...

'. ''Pheasant'' was borrowed into English in 1299 as ''fesaund'', ultimately from Ancient Greek. *''wyrm'': ' serpent', '

snake Snakes are elongated limbless reptiles of the suborder Serpentes (). Cladistically squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales much like other members of the group. Many species of snakes have s ...

', '

dragon A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...

', 'insect'. The OED lists all entries of ''wyrm''/''worm'' with this meaning as archaic. The latest citation with this meaning is from

William Morris William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was an English textile designer, poet, artist, writer, and socialist activist associated with the British Arts and Crafts movement. He was a major contributor to the revival of traditiona ...

's book ''The Life and Death of Jason'' (1867). The modern sense of ''worm'' goes back as far as 1000. Compare with Swedish ''orm'', Nynorsk ''orm'' ('snake', 'serpent').

Body parts

*''earsgang'': '

anus In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the anus (: anuses or ani; from Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is the external body orifice at the ''exit'' end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e. the opposite end from the mouth. Its function is to facil ...

' (literally arse-exit). ''Anus'' did not enter English until 1658 and was adopted directly from Latin, with no intermediary. The OED says that '' arse'' (the ''ears'' of ''earsgang'' is its etymon) is "obsolete in polite use". The AHD tags ''ass'' as "vulgar slang". As late as 1704,

Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish writer, essayist, satirist, and Anglican cleric. In 1713, he became the Dean (Christianity), dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, and was given the sobriquet "Dean Swi ...

wrote "after your Arse" in his book '' The Battle of the Books'', which simply meant 'behind you'. (See ''setl'', ''ūtgang''.). *''feorhbold'', ''feorhhold'', ''feorhhus'': ' body'. (See also: ''līc'', ''līcfæt'', ''līchoma''.) *''hrēsel'': '

radius (bone) The radius or radial bone (: radii or radiuses) is one of the two large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It extends from the Anatomical terms of location, lateral side of the Elbow-joint, elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and run ...

. The word ''radius'' is Latin and its specific

anatomical Anatomy () is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old scien ...

meaning was first used in English in 1615. *''līc'': ' body',' trunk'. ''Līc'' (which was at various times spelled ''like'', ''lich'', ''lych'', ''lyche'' and ''lyke'') is attested as far back as around 900 and the last citation given with this more general meaning is from around 1400. However, the last citation with the meaning of 'corpse' is from 1895. The word is used in compounds such as '' lych-gate'', '' lych-owl'' (so called because its screeching was thought to forebode death) and ''lyke-wake'' (the watch kept over a dead body at night). The word is etymologically akin to '' like'', so its original meaning is thought to be 'form', 'shape'. (See also: ''feorhbold'', ''feorhhold'', ''feorhhus'', ''līcfæt'', ''līchoma''.) Compare with the following words in other languages for 'corpse': German ''Leiche'', Dutch ''lijk'', Swedish ''lik'', Norwegian ''lik'' and Danish ''lig''. *''līcfæt'', ''līchoma'': ' body'. (See also: ''feorhbold'', ''feorhhold'', ''feorhhus'', ''līc''.) Compare with German ''Leichnam'' ('corpse'), Dutch ''lichaam'', Swedish ''lekamen'', Nynorsk ''lekam'' and Danish ''legeme''. *''lið'': '

joint A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole.Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw- ...

', ' limb'. ''Lið'' (later spelled ''lith'') is attested as early as around 900 and the latest citation in the OED is 1872. The OED considers all modern occurrences to be archaic or dialectal. However, the phrase "life and limb" may be an altered form of an earlier "lith and limb"; cf. "kith and kin". Compare with German ''Glied'', Dutch ''lid'', Swedish ''led'', Danish ''led'' and Norwegian ''ledd''. *''midhriðre'': ' diaphragm'. *''nebb'': '

face The face is the front of the head that features the eyes, nose and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities may affect th ...

'. The OED gives the modern definitions of the Scottish,

Irish English Hiberno-English or Irish English (IrE), also formerly sometimes called Anglo-Irish, is the set of dialects of English native to the island of Ireland. In both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, English is the first language in e ...

, Northern English for ''neb'', such as 'bird's beak' and 'an animal's nose', but the last citation given with the meaning 'a person's face' is from 1525. (See also: ''ondwlita'', ''onsīen''.) Compare English ''ness'' ('

promontory A promontory is a raised mass of land that projects into a lowland or a body of water (in which case it is a peninsula). Most promontories either are formed from a hard ridge of rock that has resisted the erosive forces that have removed the s ...

'), Dutch ''neb'' ('beak'). *''ōcusta'', ''ōxn'': '

armpit The axilla (: axillae or axillas; also known as the armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the shoulder joint. It includes the axillary space, an anatomical space within the shoulder girdle between the arm an ...

'. ''Armpit'' first appeared in English as ''arme-pytt'' around 1400. The former is now used dialectally as ''oxter'' ('armpit', 'arm'), and it is probably akin to ''axle''. Compare with German ''Achsel'', Dutch ''oksel'', Swedish ''axel'' (shoulder), Norwegian ''aksel'' (shoulder). *''ondwlita'': '

'. (See also: ''nebb'', ''onsīen''.) Compare with German ''Antlitz'', Swedish ''anlete''. *''onsīen'': '

' (See also: ''nebb'', ''ondwlita''.) Compare with German ''(An)gesicht'', Dutch ''aangezicht''. *''ōxn'': '

'. (See also: ''ōcusta''.) *''setl'': '

'. (See also: ''earsgang'', ''ūtgang''.) *''teors'': '

penis A penis (; : penises or penes) is a sex organ through which male and hermaphrodite animals expel semen during copulation (zoology), copulation, and through which male placental mammals and marsupials also Urination, urinate. The term ''pen ...

'. (See also: ''wæpen''.) ''Penis'', which did not enter English until 1578, was borrowed directly from Latin. *''ūtgang'': '

'. Literally 'exit', 'out-path', (See also: ''earsgang'', ''setl''.) Compare German ''Ausgang'', Dutch ''uitgang'' ('exit'). *''wæpen'': '

'. (See also: ''teors''.) *''wiðobān'': ' collarbone'.

Colours

*''æppelfealu'': ' orange'. Literally '

apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...

-pale'. (See also: ''geolurēad''.) *''basurēadan'': '

purple Purple is a color similar in appearance to violet light. In the RYB color model historically used in the arts, purple is a secondary color created by combining red and blue pigments. In the CMYK color model used in modern printing, purple is ...

'. Literally 'purple-red'. (See also: ''weolucbasu''.) *''geolurēad'': 'orange'. Literally '

yellow Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In t ...

- red'. (See also: ''æppelfealu''.) *''weolucbasu'': 'purple'. Literally ' whelk-purple'. (See also: ''basurēadan''.)

Other words

*''andwurde'', ''andwyrde'': 'to answer'. A combination of the prefix ''and-'' ('against', akin to Greek ''anti-'') and ''wurde'' ('

word A word is a basic element of language that carries semantics, meaning, can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible. Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no consensus among linguist ...

'). By the end of the 12th century, ''andwurde'' had been replaced by ''andswerian'' ('answer'), (containing ''swear'', probably Common Germanic, attested at least before 900). Compare with German ''Antwort'', Dutch ''antwoord''. *'' æðele'': ' noble'; also '' æðelu'': 'noble descent'; '' æðeling'': 'hero' and '' ēðel'': 'native land', 'home'. Once common words with many compounds, they are only in Modern English as the loanword '' edelweiss'' and some proper nouns such as '' Ethel'' (the same Germanic root gives the ''Ad-'' in ''

Adelaide Adelaide ( , ; ) is the list of Australian capital cities, capital and most populous city of South Australia, as well as the list of cities in Australia by population, fifth-most populous city in Australia. The name "Adelaide" may refer to ei ...

'', '' Adolph'' and '' Albert''). The Latin-derived words ''noble'' and ''gentle'' (in its original English meaning of 'noble') were both borrowed into English around 1230. Compare with German ''edel'', Dutch ''edel'', English ''athel''. *''ge-'': a prefix used extensively in Old English, originally meaning 'with', but later gaining other usages, such as being used grammatically for the perfect tense. In Middle English it became ''y'' or ''i'', and it was still common in southern dialects in the 14th century (e.g.

Canterbury Tales ''The Canterbury Tales'' () is a collection of 24 stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. The book presents the tales, which are mostly written in verse (poetry), verse, as part of a fictional storytellin ...

and Ayenbite of Inwit). In Modern English it survives in '' handiwork'' (OE ''handgeweorc''), and in the archaic '' gemot'' ('meeting', compare with '' Witenagemot'') and '' yclept'' (OE ''geclypod''). It is also found in the rare German loanwords '' gemütlich'' and '' gemütlichkeit''. Compare with German ''ge-'', Dutch ''ge-''. *''gerīm'': '

number A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The most basic examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers can ...

'. (See ''worn''.) *''getæl'': '

'. A combination of the prefix ''ge-'' and ''tæl''. Besides the phrase "to tell time",Online Etymology Dictionary
'tell (v.)'
it mainly survived in English with meanings related to speech ('tell', 'tale'). Meanings related to numbers can be found in Germanic cognates. Compare with English '' teller'', German ''Zahl'', Dutch ''getal'', Swedish and Danish ''tal'' and Norwegian ''tall''. (See ''worn''.) *''hæmed'': ' sex'. *''liger'': ' sex'. *''mid'': ' with'. ''Mid'' was used in Old English in nearly all instances where 'with' is used in Modern English. It is attested in early Old English manuscripts. The latest use cited in the OED is 1547, but this late example may be an intentional archaism. By the end of the 14th century, ''mid'' had been overtaken by ''with''. If the first part of ''

midwife A midwife (: midwives) is a health professional who cares for mothers and Infant, newborns around childbirth, a specialisation known as midwifery. The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughou ...

'' is a reflex of this

preposition Adpositions are a part of speech, class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations (''in, under, towards, behind, ago'', etc.) or mark various thematic relations, semantic roles (''of, for''). The most common adpositions are prepositi ...

(neither OED nor AHD affirm this derivation), it is the only trace of the ''with'' meaning in Modern English. The word probably originally derived from an Indo-European root meaning 'middle' and is akin to the English prefix ''mid-'' and Latin ''medium''. It is likely to be akin to Greek ''μετα'' ('meta', 'in the midst of', 'among', 'with', 'after'). Compare with German ''mit'', Dutch ''met'', Common Scandinavian ''med'' and Icelandic ''með''. *''worn'': '

'. ''Number'' is akin to Latin '' numerus'' which was borrowed as ''noumbre'' around 1300, seemingly from French, but its use was doubtlessly reinforced by its presence in other

. *'' ymb(e)'': 'around', 'on both sides'. '' Ymbe'' was both a

and a prefix. The only Modern English word that derives directly from it is the seldom-used '' Ember days'', which is a Christian event. The Germanic loanwords ''

ombudsman An ombudsman ( , also ) is a government employee who investigates and tries to resolve complaints, usually through recommendations (binding or not) or mediation. They are usually appointed by the government or by parliament (often with a sign ...

'' and '' umlaut'' come from the same Germanic root. It is also related more distantly to Latin words starting with '' ambi-'' and Greek words starting with '' amphi-''. Compare with German ''um'', Dutch ''om'', Common Scandinavian ''om'' and Icelandic ''um''. *'' wīġ'': ' war', '

combat Combat (French language, French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent Conflict (process), conflict between multiple combatants with the intent to harm the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed (Hand-to-hand combat, not usin ...

', ' martial power'. There were many words of this root in Old English: ''wīgan'', ''ġewegan'' ('to fight'), ''wīġend'' ('

warrior A warrior is a guardian specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal society, tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracy, social class, class, or caste. History ...

'). This group was used extensively in

Old English poetry Old English literature refers to poetry (alliterative verse) and prose written in Old English in early medieval England, from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman conquest of England, Norman Conquest of 1066, a period often termed A ...

, due to the

alliterative Alliteration is the repetition of syllable-initial consonant sounds between nearby words, or of syllable-initial vowels if the syllables in question do not start with a consonant. It is often used as a List of narrative techniques#Style, litera ...

need for a word beginning with 'w'. It comes from the same root as Latin '' vincere'' ('to conquer'). Other than the Old Norse-derived ''wight'', this root is missing in Modern English. Compare with Swedish ''envig'' ('

holmgang Holmgang (, , Danish language, Danish and , ) is a duel practiced by early medieval Scandinavians. It was a legally recognized way to settle disputes. The name ''holmgang'' (literally "holm-going") may derive from the combatants' dueling on a sm ...

') and Dutch ''wijgand'' ('warrior').

Animals

Body parts

Colours

Other words

See also

References

Sources

Further reading