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Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the
Gandhāran Buddhist texts The Gandhāran Buddhist texts are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered, dating from about the 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE. They represent the literature of Gandharan Buddhism from present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afgha ...
, found in Afghanistan and written in Gāndhārī, they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE. The first Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by Buddhist monastics, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo-Aryan languages (such as Pāli, Gāndhārī, and
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) is a modern linguistic category applied to the language used in a class of Indian Buddhist texts, such as the Perfection of Wisdom sutras. BHS is classified as a Middle Indo-Aryan language. It is sometimes called "Bu ...
) and collected into various Buddhist Canons.


These were then translated into other languages such as Buddhist
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
(''fójiào hànyǔ'' 佛教漢語) and
Classical Tibetan Classical Tibetan refers to the language of any text written in Tibetic after the Old Tibetan period. Though it extends from the 12th century until the modern day, it particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from o ...
as Buddhism spread outside of India. Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between ''
buddhavacana Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
'' "word of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
," many of which are known as " sutras", and other texts, such as "
shastras ''Shastra'' (, IAST: , ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The wo ...
" (treatises) or "
Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
". These religious texts were written in different languages, methods and writing systems. Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. Even after the development and adoption of
printing Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabonidus. The e ...
by Buddhist institutions, Buddhists continued to copy them by hand as a spiritual practice. In an effort to preserve these scriptures, Asian Buddhist institutions were at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to
bookmaking A bookmaker, bookie, or turf accountant is an organization or a person that accepts and pays off bets on sporting and other events at agreed-upon odds. History The first bookmaker, Ogden, stood at Newmarket in 1795. Range of events Bookma ...
, including paper, and
block printing Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. Each page or image is create ...
which were often deployed on a large scale. Because of this, the first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.


Buddhavacana

The concept of ''buddhavacana'' (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. Buddhavacana texts have special status as sacred scripture and are generally seen as in accord with the teachings of the
historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
, which is termed "the Dharma". According to Donald Lopez, the criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that Dharma is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha.Lopez, Donald. ''Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra.'' 1998. p. 28 The
Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...
and the Mūlasarvāstivāda considered both the Buddha's discourses and those of his disciples to be ''buddhavacana''. A number of different beings such as Buddhas, disciples of the Buddha, ṛṣis, and
deva Deva may refer to: Entertainment * ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film * ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film * ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film * Deva (2007 Telugu film) * ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film * Deva ...
s were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana. The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the
sūtras ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an ap ...
, compared with the
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma.Lopez, Donald. ''Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra.'' 1998. p. 29Skilton, Andrew. ''A Concise History of Buddhism.'' 2004. p. 83 These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a
sangha Sangha is a Sanskrit word used in many Indian languages, including Pali meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community"; Sangha is often used as a surname across these languages. It was historically used in a political context t ...
, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder. In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of ''buddhavacana'' is the Pāli Canon, also known as the ''
Tripiṭaka ''Tipiṭaka'' () or ''Tripiṭaka'' () or ''තිපිටක'' (), meaning "Triple Basket", is the traditional term for ancient collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures. The Pāli Canon maintained by the Theravāda tradition in ...
'' ("three baskets"). Generally speaking, the Theravāda school rejects the
Mahāyāna sūtras The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures (''sūtra'') that are accepted as canonical and as ''buddhavacana'' ("Buddha word") in Mahāyāna Buddhism. They are largely preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibetan ...
as ''buddhavacana'' (word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts as reliable sources.Karen Pechilis, Selva J. Raj (2013). ''South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today'', p. 115. Routledge. In
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and ...
, what is considered ''buddhavacana'' is collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon; the most common edition of this is the Taishō Tripiṭaka, itself based on the Tripiṭaka Koreana. This collection, unlike the Pāli ''Tripiṭaka'', contains Mahāyāna sūtras, Śāstras (scholastic treatises), and Esoteric Buddhist literature. According to Venerable
Hsuan Hua Hsuan Hua (; April 16, 1918 – June 7, 1995), also known as An Tzu, Tu Lun and Master Hua by his Western disciples, was a Chinese monk of Chan Buddhism and a contributing figure in bringing Chinese Buddhism to the United States in the la ...
from the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma.Hsuan Hua. ''The Buddha speaks of Amitabha Sutra: A General Explanation.'' 2003. p. 2 Then these sutras may be properly regarded as ''buddhavacana''. Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as ''buddhavacana''. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, what is considered ''buddhavacana'' is collected in the
Kangyur The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined collection of sacred texts recognized by various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, comprising the Kangyur or Kanjur ('Translation of the Word') and the Tengyur or Tanjur ( Tengyur) ('Translation of Trea ...
('The Translation of the Word'). The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist Canons always combined ''buddhavacana'' with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not ''buddhavacana'' is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayāna Buddhism, in addition to containing sutras and Vinaya, also contains
Buddhist tantras The Buddhist Tantras are a varied group of Indian and Tibetan texts which outline unique views and practices of the Buddhist tantra religious systems. Overview Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire period, though there are ...
and other related Tantric literature.


The texts of the early Buddhist schools


Early Buddhist texts

The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called
Prakrits The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usua ...
, including
Gāndhārī language Gāndhārī is the modern name, coined by scholar Harold Walter Bailey (in 1946), for a Prakrit language found mainly in texts dated between the 3rd century BCE and 4th century CE in the region of Gandhāra, located in the northwestern Indian s ...
, the early
Magadhan The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as Māgadhan languages, are spoken throughout the eastern Indian subcontinent (East India and Assam, Bangladesh), including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Odisha; alongs ...
language and Pāli through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices. These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. For example, the Pāli Canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE. There are early texts from various Buddhist schools, the largest collections are from the Theravāda and
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
schools, but there are also full texts and fragments from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika,
Mahīśāsaka Mahīśāsaka ( sa, महीशासक; ) is one of the early Buddhist schools according to some records. Its origins may go back to the dispute in the Second Buddhist council. The Dharmaguptaka sect is thought to have branched out from Mahī ...
, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and others. The most widely studied early Buddhist material are the first four Pāli Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. The modern study of early
pre-sectarian Buddhism Pre-sectarian Buddhism, also called early Buddhism, the earliest Buddhism, original Buddhism, and primitive Buddhism, is Buddhism as theorized to have existed before the various Early Buddhist schools developed, around 250 BCE (followed by later ...
often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources. Various scholars of
Buddhist studies Buddhist studies, also known as Buddhology, is the academic study of Buddhism. The term ''Buddhology'' was coined in the early 20th century by the Unitarian minister Joseph Estlin Carpenter to mean the "study of Buddhahood, the nature of the Bud ...
such as
Richard Gombrich Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-President ...
, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne, and
A. K. Warder Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011). Life W ...
hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the
historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
himself or at least to the early years of
pre-sectarian Buddhism Pre-sectarian Buddhism, also called early Buddhism, the earliest Buddhism, original Buddhism, and primitive Buddhism, is Buddhism as theorized to have existed before the various Early Buddhist schools developed, around 250 BCE (followed by later ...
.Wynne, Alexander. ''Did the Buddha exist?'' JOCBS. 2019(16): 98-148. In
Mahāyāna Buddhism ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bran ...
, these texts are sometimes referred to as "
Hinayana Hīnayāna (, ) is a Sanskrit term literally meaning the "small/deficient vehicle". Classical Chinese and Tibetan teachers translate it as "smaller vehicle". The term is applied collectively to the ''Śrāvakayāna'' and ''Pratyekabuddhayāna'' p ...
" or "
Śrāvakayāna Śrāvakayāna ( sa, श्रावकयान; pi, सावकयान; ) is one of the three '' yānas'' known to Indian Buddhism. It translates literally as the "vehicle of listeners .e. disciples. Historically it was the most common t ...
". Although many versions of the texts of the
early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools are those schools into which the Buddhist monastic saṅgha split early in the history of Buddhism. The divisions were originally due to differences in Vinaya and later also due to doctrinal differences and geographi ...
exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the ''Tipiṭaka'' (triple basket) of the Theravāda school. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Chinese Āgamas, which includes collections by the
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
and the Dharmaguptaka. The Chinese Buddhist canon contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content. The Tibetan canon contains some of these early texts as well, but not as complete collections. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts containing early Buddhist texts are the Gandharan Buddhist Texts, dated to the 1st century BCE and constitute the Buddhist textual tradition of Gandharan Buddhism which was an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism. Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found among these Gandharan Buddhist Texts. There are different genres of early Buddhist texts, including prose " suttas" ( Sanskrit: ''sūtra'', discourses), disciplinary works (''
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
''), various forms of verse compositions (such as ''gāthā'' and ''udāna''), mixed prose and verse works (''geya''), and also lists (''matika'') of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre. The ''Sūtras'' ( Sanskrit; Pāli: ''Sutta'') are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be ''buddhavacana'' by all schools. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called '' Nikāyas'' ('volumes') or '' Āgamas'' ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the ''Sūtra Piṭaka'' ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early Buddhist schools. Most of the early sutras that have survived are from Sthavira nikaya schools, no complete collection has survived from the other early branch of Buddhism, the
Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...
. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the '' Śālistamba Sūtra'' (rice stalk sūtra). This ''sūtra'' contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the early sutras of the Sthavira schools such as dependent origination, the "
middle way The Middle Way ( pi, ; sa, ) as well as "teaching the Dharma by the middle" (''majjhena dhammaṃ deseti'') are common Buddhist terms used to refer to two major aspects of the Dharma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha.; my, အလယ်� ...
" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "
five aggregates (Sanskrit) or (Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings". In Buddhism, it refers to the five aggregates of clinging (), the five material and mental factors that take part in the rise of craving and clinging. They are also ...
", the " three unwholesome roots", the
Four Noble Truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones". Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
and the Noble Eightfold Path. Another important source for Mahāsāṃghika sutras is the ''
Mahāvastu The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a text of the Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism. It describes itself as being a historical preface to the Buddhist monastic codes (''vinaya''). Over half of the text is comp ...
'' ("Great Event"), which is a collection of various texts compiled into a biography of the Buddha. Within it can be found quotations and whole sutras, such as the Mahāsāṃghika version of the '' Dharmacakrapravartana''. The other major type of text aside from the sutras are the
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
s. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (
sangha Sangha is a Sanskrit word used in many Indian languages, including Pali meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community"; Sangha is often used as a surname across these languages. It was historically used in a political context t ...
). However, Vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma-Vinaya) mean something like 'doctrine and discipline'. The Vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the " Jatakas", or birth stories. Various
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
collections survive in full, including those of the following schools: Theravāda (in
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
), Mula-Sarvāstivāda (in Tibetan translation) and the Mahāsānghika,
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
, Mahīshāsika, and Dharmaguptaka (in
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
translations). In addition, portions survive of a number of Vinayas in various languages. Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. The Theravāda ''
Khuddaka Nikāya The Khuddaka Nikāya () is the last of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism. This nikaya consists of fifteen (Thailand), ...
'' (‘Minor Collection’) is one example of such a collection, while there is evidence that the Dharmaguptaka school had a similar collection, known as the ''Kṣudraka Āgam''a. Fragments of the Dharmaguptaka minor collection have been found in Gandhari. The Sarvāstivāda school also seems to have had a ''Kṣudraka'' collection of texts, but they did not see it as an "Āgama". These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early Buddhist schools. Early Buddhist texts which appear in such "minor" collections include: * The ''Dharmapadas''. These texts are collections of sayings and aphorisms, the most well known of which is the Pali '' Dhammapada'', but there are various versions in different languages, such as the ''Patna Dharmapada'' and the '' Gāndhārī Dharmapada''. * The Pali '' Udana'' and the Sarvāstivāda ''Udānavarga''. These are other collections of "inspired sayings." *The Pali ''
Itivuttaka The Itivuttaka (Pali for "as it was said") is a Buddhist scripture, part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism and is attributed to Khujjuttara's recollection of Buddha's discourses. It is included there in the Sutta Pitaka's Khuddaka Nikaya. ...
'' ("as it was said") and the Chinese translation of the ''Itivṛttaka'' (本事經) by Xuanzang.Winternitz, Moriz (1996). ''A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2'', p. 227. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher * The Pali '' Sutta Nipata'', including texts such as the ''Aṭṭhakavagga'' and ''Pārāyanavagga''. There is also a parallel in the Chinese translation of the ''Arthavargīya.'' * ''Theragāthā'' and ''Therīgāthā'' two collections of verses related to the elder disciples of the Buddha. A Sanskrit ''Sthaviragāthā'' is also known to have existed.


Abhidharma texts

Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
(in Pāli, ''Abhidhamma'') texts which contain "an abstract and highly technical systematization" of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras. It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" ('' paramartha-satya'') without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras. The prominent modern scholar of Abhidharma,
Erich Frauwallner Erich Frauwallner (December 28, 1898 – July 5, 1974) was an Austrian professor, a pioneer in the field of Buddhist studies.Walter Slaje: Rezensionen, Stuchlik, Jakob: Der arische Ansatz. Erich Frauwallner und der Nationalsozialismus, Asiatisc ...
has said that these Buddhist systems are "among the major achievements of the classical period of Indian philosophy." Modern scholars generally believe that the canonical Abhidharma texts emerged after the time of the Buddha, in around the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists."Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. There are different types and historical layers of Abhidharma literature. The early canonical Abhidharma works (like the '' Abhidhamma Pitaka'') are not philosophical treatises, but mainly summaries and expositions of early doctrinal lists with their accompanying explanations.Anālayo (2014) ''"The Dawn of Abhidharma,"'' pp. 79-83. Hamburg University Press. These texts developed out of early Buddhist lists or matrices (''mātṛkās'') of key teachings, such as the 37 factors leading to Awakening. Scholars like
Erich Frauwallner Erich Frauwallner (December 28, 1898 – July 5, 1974) was an Austrian professor, a pioneer in the field of Buddhist studies.Walter Slaje: Rezensionen, Stuchlik, Jakob: Der arische Ansatz. Erich Frauwallner und der Nationalsozialismus, Asiatisc ...
have argued that there is an "ancient core" of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest Abhidharma works, such as in the Theravada '' Vibhanga'', the ''
Dharmaskandha Dharmaskandha ( sa, धर्मस्कन्ध) or Dharma-skandha-sastra () is one of the seven Sarvastivada Abhidharma Buddhist scriptures. Dharmaskandha means "collection of dharmas". It was composed by Sariputra (according to the Sanskrit a ...
'' of the
Sarvastivada The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
, and the ''Śāriputrābhidharma'' of the Dharmaguptaka school.Frauwallner, Erich. Kidd, Sophie Francis (translator). Steinkellner, Ernst (editor). ''Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems.'' SUNY Press. pp. 18, 100. Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the
Theravāda Abhidhamma The Theravāda Abhidhamma is a scholastic systematization of the Theravāda school's understanding of the highest Buddhist teachings ( Abhidhamma). These teachings are traditionally believed to have been taught by the Buddha, though modern schola ...
and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which survives in Chinese translation. However, texts of other tradition have survived, such as the ''
Śāriputrābhidharma The ''Śāriputrābhidharma-śāstra'' (Ch. ''Shèlìfú Āpítán Lùn'', 舍利弗阿毘曇論, Taisho: 28, No. 1548, pp. 525c-719a) is a Buddhist Abhidharma text of the Sthāvirāḥ Dharmaguptaka school, the only surviving Abhidharma from that ...
'' of the Dharmaguptaka school, the '' Tattvasiddhi Śāstra'' (''Chéngshílun'') and various Abhidharma type works from the
Pudgalavada The Pudgalavāda (Sanskrit; English: "Personalism"; Pali: Puggalavāda; ) was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group of Nikaya Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vātsīputrīyas) that arose from the Sthavira nikāya.Williams, P ...
school. Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises (''
śāstra ''Shastra'' (, IAST: , ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The wo ...
''), as commentaries ('' aṭṭhakathā'') or as smaller introductory manuals. They are more developed philosophical works which include many innovations and doctrines not found in the canonical Abhidharma.


Other texts

The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition. One of the largest category of texts that were neither Sutra, Vinaya nor Abhidharma includes various collections of stories such as the Jātaka tales and the Avadānas (Pali:
Apadāna The ''Apadāna'' is a collection of biographical stories found in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Pāli Canon, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism. G.P. Malalasekera describes it as 'a Buddhist Vitae Sanctorum' of Buddhist monks and nuns who lived du ...
). These are moral fables and legends dealing with the previous births of
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
in both human and animal form. The different Buddhist schools had their own collections of these tales and often disagreed on which stories were canonical.Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. pp. 286-287 Another genre that developed over time in the various early schools were biographies of the Buddha. Buddha biographies include the ''
Mahāvastu The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a text of the Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism. It describes itself as being a historical preface to the Buddhist monastic codes (''vinaya''). Over half of the text is comp ...
'' of the Lokottaravadin school, the northern tradition's '' Lalitavistara Sūtra,'' the Theravada ''Nidānakathā'' and the Dharmaguptaka '' Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra.'' One of the most famous of biographies is the ''
Buddhacarita ''Buddhacharita'' (; ) is an epic poem in the Sanskrit ''mahakavya'' style on the life of Gautama Buddha by of Sāketa (modern Ayodhya), composed in the early second century CE. The author has prepared an account of the Buddha's life and teac ...
'', an epic poem in Classical Sanskrit by
Aśvaghoṣa , also transliterated Ashvaghosha, (, अश्वघोष; lit. "Having a Horse-Voice"; ; Chinese 馬鳴菩薩 pinyin: Mǎmíng púsà, litt.: 'Bodhisattva with a Horse-Voice') CE) was a Sarvāstivāda or Mahasanghika Buddhist philosopher ...
. Aśvaghoṣa also wrote other poems, as well as Sanskrit dramas. Another Sanskrit Buddhist poet was Mātṛceṭa, who composed various pious hymns in
slokas Shloka or śloka ( sa, श्लोक , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927). in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is ...
.
Buddhist poetry Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
is a broad genre with numerous forms and has been composed in many languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Aside from the work of Aśvaghoṣa, another important Sanskrit poet was Mātr̥ceṭa, known for his ''One Hundred and Fifty Verses.'' Buddhist poetry was also written in popular Indian languages, such as Tamil and Apabhramsa. One well known poem is the Tamil epic '' Manimekalai,'' which is one of the
Five Great Epics The Five Great Epics ( ta, ஐம்பெரும்காப்பியங்கள் ''Aimperumkāppiyaṅkaḷ'') are five Tamil epics according to later Tamil literary tradition. They are '' Silappatikāram'', ''Manimekalai'', ''Cīvak ...
of
Tamil literature Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from ...
. Other later hagiographical texts include the ''
Buddhavaṃsa The ''Buddhavaṃsa'' (also known as the ''Chronicle of Buddhas'') is a hagiographical Buddhist text which describes the life of Gautama Buddha and of the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded him and prophesied his attainment of Buddhahood. It is ...
,'' the ''
Cariyāpiṭaka The Cariyapitaka (; where ''cariya'' is Pali for "conduct" or "proper conduct" and ''pitaka'' is usually translated as "basket"; abbrev. Cp) is a Buddhist scripture, part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism. It is included there in the Sutt ...
'' and the '' Vimanavatthu'' (as well as its Chinese parallel, the ''Vimānāvadāna''). There are also some unique individual texts like the '' Milinda pañha'' (literally ''The Questions of Milinda'') and its parallel in Chinese, the ''Nāgasena Bhikśu Sūtra'' (那先比丘經). These texts depict a dialogue between the monk
Nagasena Nāgasena was a Sarvastivadan Buddhist sage who lived around 150 BC. His answers to questions about Buddhism posed by Menander I (Pali: ''Milinda''), the Indo-Greek king of northwestern India, are recorded in the '' Milinda Pañha'' and the Sa ...
, and the Indo-Greek King
Menander Menander (; grc-gre, Μένανδρος ''Menandros''; c. 342/41 – c. 290 BC) was a Greek dramatist and the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy. He wrote 108 comedies and took the prize at the Lenaia festival eight times. His rec ...
(Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects.


Theravāda texts

The Theravāda tradition has an extensive commentarial literature, much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as
Buddhaghosa Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator, translator and philosopher. He worked in the Great Monastery (''Mahāvihāra'') at Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka and saw himself as being part of the Vibhajjavāda school and in t ...
(5th century CE) and Dhammapala. There are also sub-commentaries (''ṭīkā'') or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the '' Visuddhimagga'', or ''Path of Purification'', which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the
Mahavihara Mahavihara () is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a great vihara (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas. Mahaviharas of India A range of monasteries grew up in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar ...
tradition of Sri Lanka. According to Nanamoli Bhikkhu, this text is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada." A similar albeit shorter work is the ''
Vimuttimagga __NOTOC__ The ''Vimuttimagga'' ("Path of Freedom") is a Buddhist practice manual, traditionally attributed to the Arahant Upatissa (c. 1st or 2nd century). It was translated into Chinese in the sixth century as the ''Jietuo dao lun'' 解脫道論 ...
''. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the ''
Abhidhammattha-sangaha The ''Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha'' (The Compendium of Things contained in the Abhidhamma) is a Pali Buddhist instructional manual or compendium of the Abhidhamma of the Theravāda tradition. It was written by the Sri Lankan monk Ācariya Anuruddha ...
'' (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma. Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan Sinhala language, which are now lost.
Sri Lankan literature Sri Lankan literature is the literary tradition of Sri Lanka. The largest part of Sri Lankan literature was written in the Sinhala language, but there is a considerable number of works in other languages used in Sri Lanka over the millennia (inc ...
in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the ''Muvadevāvata'' (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the ''Sasadāvata'' (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the ''Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya'' (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli Dhammapada. The Theravāda textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the ''Aggavamsa'' of Saddaniti and the ''
Jinakalamali ( my, ဇိနကာလမာလီ; th, ชินกาลมาลีปกรณ์; ; ) is a Chiang Mai chronicle that covers mostly about religious history, and contains a section on early Lan Na kings to 1516/1517. Similar period Pali ...
'' of Ratanapañña. Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as Mahasi Sayadaw translated some of their texts into Pali. There are also numerous Esoteric Theravada texts, mostly from Southeast Asia. This tradition flourished in
Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand ...
and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of
Rama IV Mongkut ( th, มงกุฏ; 18 October 18041 October 1868) was the fourth monarch of Siam (Thailand) under the House of Chakri, titled Rama IV. He ruled from 1851 to 1868. His full title in Thai was ''Phra Bat Somdet Phra Menthora Ramathibod ...
. One of these texts has been published in English by the Pali Text Society as "Manual of a Mystic". Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms form the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the which are long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly jatakas. A famous example of poetry is the (the in nine sections, 1523). There is also a genre of Burmese commentaries or which were used to teach Pali. The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature. An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang" (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe.


Mahāyāna texts


Mahāyāna sūtras

''See
Mahāyāna sūtras The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures (''sūtra'') that are accepted as canonical and as ''buddhavacana'' ("Buddha word") in Mahāyāna Buddhism. They are largely preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibetan ...
for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source.'' Around the beginning of the
common era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
ideal, commonly known as ''Mahāyāna'' ("Great Vehicle") or ''Bodhisattvayāna'' ("
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
Vehicle"). The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves ‘Mahāyāna,’ but use the terms ''Vaipulya'' (extensive, expansive) sutras, or ''Gambhira'' (deep, profound) sutras.Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 66–74, There are various theories of how Mahāyāna emerged. According to David Drewes, it seems to have been "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Early ''dharmabhanakas'' (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities. Many of these Mahāyāna sūtras were written in Sanskrit (in hybrid forms and in classical Sanskrit) and then later translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the
Kangyur The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined collection of sacred texts recognized by various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, comprising the Kangyur or Kanjur ('Translation of the Word') and the Tengyur or Tanjur ( Tengyur) ('Translation of Trea ...
and the Taishō Tripiṭaka respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. Sanskrit had been adopted by Buddhists in north India during the Kushan era and
Sanskrit Buddhist literature Sanskrit Buddhist literature refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit" (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit"), or a mixture of these two.Edg ...
became the dominant tradition in Buddhist India until the decline of Buddhism there. Mahāyāna sūtras are also generally regarded by the Mahāyāna tradition as being more profound than the śrāvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sutras. The Mahāyāna sūtras are traditionally considered by Mahāyāna Buddhists to be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists explained the emergence of these new texts by arguing that they had been transmitted in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the nagas) until people were ready to hear them, or by stating that they had been revealed directly through visions and meditative experiences to a select few.Werner et al (2013). ''The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.'' pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society. According to David McMahan, the literary style of the Mahāyāna sūtras reveals how these texts were mainly composed as written works and how they also needed to legitimate themselves to other Buddhists. They used different literary and narrative ways to defend the legitimacy of these texts as Buddha word. Mahāyāna sūtras such as the ''Gaṇḍavyūha'' also often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or śrāvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings, while more the advanced elite, the bodhisattvas, are depicted as those who can see the highest teachings. These sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word by various early Buddhist schools and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha, showing that they are aware of this claim. Buddhist communities such as the
Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...
school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts. The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka also was split on the issue during the medieval period. The
Mahavihara Mahavihara () is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a great vihara (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas. Mahaviharas of India A range of monasteries grew up in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar ...
sub-sect rejected these texts and the (now extinct) Abhayagiri sect accepted them. Theravāda commentaries mention these texts (which they call ''Vedalla/Vetulla'') as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. Modern Theravāda generally does not accept these texts as ''
buddhavacana Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
'' (word of the Buddha). The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from
Bamiyan Bamyan or Bamyan Valley (); ( prs, بامیان) also spelled Bamiyan or Bamian is the capital of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. Its population of approximately 70,000 people makes it the largest city in Hazarajat. Bamyan is at an alti ...
). However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian,
Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zho ...
, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, ‘celestial’
Buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
and
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras. These texts also promoted new religious practices that were supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve, such as "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras." Some Mahāyāna sūtras claim that these practices lead to rebirth in Pure lands such as Abhirati and
Sukhavati Sukhavati (IAST: ''Sukhāvatī''; "Blissful") is a pure land of Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism. It is also called the Land of Bliss or Western Pure Land, and is the most well-known of Buddhist pure lands, due to the popularity of Pure Land Budd ...
, where becoming a Buddha is much easier to achieve. Several Mahāyāna sūtras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha,
Akshobhya Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the D ...
and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...
, Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point o ...
. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (''lokuttara'') beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 21. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely ‘gone beyond’ the world and its cares".Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 27. Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance", his death is an unreal show, in reality he continues to live in a transcendent reality. Thus the Buddha in the Lotus sutra says that he is "the father of the world", "the self existent (''svayambhu'')...protector of all creatures", who has "never ceased to exist" and only "pretends to have passed away." Hundreds of Mahāyāna sūtras have survived in Sanskrit,
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
and
Tibetan Tibetan may mean: * of, from, or related to Tibet * Tibetan people, an ethnic group * Tibetan language: ** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard ** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...
translation. There many different genres or classes of Mahāyāna sutras, such as the ''
Prajñāpāramitā A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
sūtra''s, the ''
Tathāgatagarbha Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
sūtras'' and the Pure Land ''sūtra''s. The different Mahāyāna schools have many varied classification schemas for organizing them and they see different texts as having higher authority than others. Some Mahāyāna sūtras are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, like some of the shorter
Perfection of Wisdom A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
sutras and the ''
Mahavairocana Sutra Vairocana (also Mahāvairocana, sa, वैरोचन) is a cosmic buddha from Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Vairocana is often interpreted, in texts like the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', as the dharmakāya of the historical Gautama Buddha. In East ...
''. At least some editions of the Kangyur include the '' Heart Sutra'' in the tantra division. Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring" yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana" texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur. One of them, the '' Atanatiya Sutra'', is also included in the Mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature. Some Mahāyāna texts also contain ''Dharani, dhāraṇī,'' which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power.


Major Mahāyāna sūtras

The following is a list of some well known Mahāyāna sutras which have been studied by modern scholarship: *''Ajitasena Sutra'' – a "proto-Mahāyāna" text, possibly one of the earliest texts with Mahāyāna elements *''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra –'' An early Mahāyāna text focused on bodhisattva monasticism. * ''Prajnaparamita, Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra –'' Possibly the earliest ''Prajñāpāramitā'' text. *''Diamond Sutra, Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā (Diamond Sutra) –'' Another possibly early ''Prajñāpāramitā'' text, very popular. *''Heart Sutra, Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (Heart Sutra) –'' Another very popular ''Prajñāpāramitā'' text. *Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, ''Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Infinite Life Sutra)'' – An influential text in Pure Land Buddhism. * ''Amitabha Sutra'' – Another Pure land text *''Contemplation Sutra –'' Another Pure land text *''Pratyutpanna Sutra'' *''Shurangama Samadhi Sutra'' * ''Lotus Sutra, Saddharmapundarīka-sūtra (Lotus Sutra) –'' One of the most influential texts in East Asian Buddhism. *''Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra, Mahāratnakūta Sūtra –'' Actually a collection of various sūtras *''Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra'' (or ''Golden Light Sutra'') *''Avatamsaka Sutra, Avataṃsaka Sūtra –'' A compilation of numerous texts, such as the ''Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra'' and the ''Ten Stages Sutra, Daśabhūmika Sūtra'' *''Sandhinirmocana Sutra'' (c. 2nd century CE), the main sutra of Yogachara, Yogacara Buddhism, introduces the doctrine of the "three turnings". *''Tathagatagarbha Sutra, Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' Tathagatagarbha Sutra, – One of the key "Buddha nature" (''Tathāgatagarbha'') sūtras *''Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, Shrīmālādevi-simhanāda Sūtra –'' A "Buddha nature" text *''Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra'' – A "Buddha nature" text, very influential in East Asian Buddhism *''Lankavatara Sutra, Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' – Includes Yogacara and ''Tathāgatagarbha'' elements, influential in Zen, Zen Buddhism. *''Samadhiraja Sutra, Samādhirāja Sūtra'' (or ''Candrapradīpa Sūtra''), influential in the Madhyamaka scholasticism of Tibet. * ''Vimalakirti Sutra, Vimalakīrti Sūtra –'' A sutra which depicts the teachings of a layman on Nondualism, non-dualism. *''Brahmajāla Sūtra'' – A text which contains an influential listing of bodhisattva precepts. *''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'', which introduces the Om mani padme hum, Om Mani Padme Hum mantra. *''Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra''


Indian treatises

The Mahāyāna commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many of these exegetical and scholastic works are called Shastras, ''Śāstras'', which can refer to a scholastic treatise, exposition or commentary. Central to much of Mahāyāna philosophy are the works of the Indian scholar Nagarjuna. Especially important is his magnum opus, the ''Mulamadhyamakakarika, Mūlamadhyamika-karikā'', or Root Verses on the Middle Way, a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises. Another very influential work which traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna In East Asia is the ''Da zhidu lun, Dà zhìdù lùn'' (*''Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, The Great Discourse on
Prajñāpāramitā A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
''). This is a massive Mahayana Buddhist treatise and commentary on the ''Prajñāpāramitā sutra'' in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions. Its authorship to Nagarjuna however has been questioned by modern scholars and it only survives in the Chinese translation by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE). The ''Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra'' (fourth century CE) is another very large treatise which focuses on yogic praxis and the doctrines of the Indian Yogachara, Yogacara school. Unlike the ''Dà zhìdù lùn'', it was studied and transmitted in both the East Asian Buddhism, East Asian Buddhist and the Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist traditions. The works of Asanga, a great scholar and systematizer of the Yogacara, are also very influential in both traditions, including his magnum opus, the ''Mahāyāna-samgraha'', and the ''Abhidharma-samuccaya'' (a compendium of
Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet). Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as ''Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika, Madhyāntavibhāga'', the ''Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika, Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra'', and the ''Abhisamayalankara, Abhisamayālamkara''. Their authorship remains disputed by modern scholars however. Asanga's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: ''Trisvabhāva-nirdesa'', ''Vimśatikāvijñaptimātratāsiddhi, Vimsatika'', ''Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā, Trimsika'', and the ''Abhidharmakośakārikā, Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya''. Numerous commentaries were written by later Yogacara exegetes on the works of these two brothers. The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the 14th Dalai Lama. Dignaga, Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the ''Pramāna-samuccaya'', and later Dharmakirti wrote the ''Pramāna-vārttikā'', which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.


East Asian works

''The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana'' (''Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn'') is an influential text in
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and ...
, especially in the Huayan school, Hua-yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. While it is traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition. The ''Dhyāna sutras'' (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the
Sarvastivada The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from Kashmir and were translated into Chinese early on. The early period of the development of Chinese Buddhism was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the Chinese Buddhist canon. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang (c. 602–664), who also wrote a commentary on Yogachara, Yogacara which remained influential, the ''Cheng Weishi Lun, Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only.''
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and ...
began to develop its own unique doctrinal literature with the rise of the Tiantai School and its major representative, Zhiyi (538–597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the Lotus sutra as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the ''Mohe Zhiguan'' (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is Huayan, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the Avatamsaka Sutra, ''Avatamsaka''. An important patriarch of this school is Fazang who wrote many commentaries and treatises. The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world". Zen Buddhism developed a Zen and Sutras#Zen literature, large literary tradition based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the ''Platform Sutra'' attributed to Zen patriarch Huineng, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Ch'an Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the ''Blue Cliff Record'' and ''The Gateless Gate''. Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the ''Transmission of the Lamp''. Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition. After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language.


Vajrayana texts


Buddhist tantras

The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which focused on ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of Mantras, Dharanis, Mandalas, Mudras and Homa (ritual), Fire offerings. Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (''kriyā tantra''), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called ''mantrakalpas'' (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the Lung (Tibetan Buddhism)#Subtle Body, subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point o ...
. Some Tantras contain antinomian and wiktionary:transgressive, transgressive practices such as ingesting Alcohol (drug), alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals. Some scholars such as Alexis Sanderson have argued that these later tantras, mainly the Yogini tantras, can be shown to have been influenced by non-Buddhist religious texts, mainly Tantric Shaivism, Śaivism and the Tantras (Hinduism), Śaiva tantras. In Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, East Asian Esoteric Buddhism and its Japanese offshoot, the Shingon Buddhism, Shingon school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on Vairocana Buddha, mainly, the ''Mahavairocana Tantra'' and the ''Vajrasekhara Sutra.'' Buddhist Tantras are key texts in Vajrayana Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. They can be found in the Chinese canon, but even more so in the Tibetan Kangyur which contains translations of almost 500 tantras. In the Tibetan tradition, there are various categories of tantra. The Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism), Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism divide the Tantras into four main categories: * Outer Tantras, ''Kriyayogatantra'' * Outer Tantras, ''Charyayogatantra'' * Outer Tantras, ''Yogatantra'' * Highest Yoga Tantra, ''Anuttarayogatantra'' ''Anuttarayogatantra'' (Higher Yoga Tantra) is known in the Nyingma school as ''Mahayoga''. Some of the most influential Higher Tantras in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are the ''Guhyasamāja Tantra'', the ''Hevajra Tantra'', the ''Cakrasamvara Tantra'', and the ''Kalacakra Tantra.'' The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the Dzogchen tantras.


Other products of the Vajrayana literature

Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called Terma (Buddhism), ''terma'' (Tibetan: ''gTer-ma''). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and/or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by tertöns (Tibetan: ''gTer-stons''), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be 'mind termas,' which are 'discovered' in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school (and Bön tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so-called ''Tibetan book of the dead'', the ''Bardo Thodol''. A sadhana is a vajrayana, tantric spiritual practice text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the mandala or a particular yidam, or meditation deity. The ''Sādhanamālā'' is a collection of sadhanas. Vajrayana adepts, known as mahasiddha, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs of realization. Collections of these songs such as the ''Caryāgīti'', or the Charyapada are still in existence. The ''Dohakosha'' is a collection of ''doha'' songs by the yogi Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as ''The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa'' was composed by Tibetan Buddhist yogi Milarepa and is especially popular amongst members of the Kagyu school. The ''Blue Annals'' ( bo, deb ther sngon po) completed in 1476CE, authored by Gölo Zhönnupel (Tibetan: ''gos lo gzhon nu dpal'', 1392–1481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet. Namtar (biography), Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story. Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese Shingon Buddhism.


See also

* Abhidhamma Piṭaka * Atthakatha * Āgama (Buddhism) * Buddhavacana * Buddhist Publication Society * Chinese Buddhist canon * Dhammapada, one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures * Dhamma Society Fund * Early Buddhist Texts * Gandharan Buddhist Texts, the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered * Index of Buddhism-related articles * List of historic Indian texts * List of suttas * Mahayana sutras * Pali Canon * Pali Literature * Pali Text Society * Palm-leaf manuscript * Pariyatti (bookstore) *
Sanskrit Buddhist literature Sanskrit Buddhist literature refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit" (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit"), or a mixture of these two.Edg ...
* Sutta Piṭaka * Taishō Tripiṭaka * Tibetan Buddhist canon * Timeline of Buddhism * Tripiṭaka Koreana * Vinaya Piṭaka * Yana (Buddhism), Yana, Buddhist schools into "yanas" or "vehicles"


References


Bibliography

* ''The Rider encyclopedia of eastern philosophy and religion''. London, Rider, 1989. * Nakamura, Hajime. 1980. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes''. 1st edition: Japan, 1980. 1st Indian Edition: Delhi, 1987. * Skilton, Andrew. ''A concise history of Buddhism''. Birmingham, Windhorse Publications, 1994. * A. K. Warder, Warder, A. K. 1970. Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 2nd revised edition: 1980. * Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism : the doctrinal foundations''. London, Routledge, 1989. * Zürcher, E. 1959. ''The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in early Medieval China''. 2nd edition. Reprint, with additions and corrections: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1972. * Susan Murcott. ''The First Buddhist Women'' Translations and Commentary on the Therigatha, 1991. *


External links

*
The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts - BuddhismThe Buddhist Text Translation SocietySuttaCentral
Public domain translations in multiple languages from the Pali Tipitaka as well as other collections, focusing on Early Buddhist Texts.
Pali Canon
in English translation (incomplete).

*[http://thecompassionnetwork.org/tripitaka-lists/ Buddhist Canonical Text Titles and Translations in English]
Beyond the Tipitaka: A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature
Karl Potter; includes lists of available translations and known or estimated dates of composition of many Buddhist sutras.

by Alexander Wynne, St John's College, Oxford University, 2003.
History of early Buddhism in Sri Lanka, The Mahawansa
{{DEFAULTSORT:Buddhist Texts Buddhist texts,