Buddhist logico-epistemology is a term used in Western scholarship for ''

pramāṇa ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".epistemological Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

study of the

nature of knowledge Definitions of knowledge try to determine the essential features of knowledge. Closely related terms are conception of knowledge, theory of knowledge, and analysis of knowledge. Some general features of knowledge are widely accepted among philoso ...

; Hetu-vidya is a system of

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premises ...

. These models developed in India during the 5th through 7th centuries. The early Buddhist texts show that the historical Buddha was familiar with certain rules of reasoning used for debating purposes and made use of these against his opponents. He also seems to have held certain ideas about epistemology and reasoning, though he did not put forth a logico-epistemological system. The structure of debating rules and processes can be seen in the early Theravada text the

Kathāvatthu Kathāvatthu (Pāli) (abbreviated Kv, Kvu; ) is a Buddhist scripture, one of the seven books in the Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka. The text contrasts the orthodox Theravada position on a range of issues to the heterodox views of various interlocuto ...

. The first Buddhist thinker to discuss logical and epistemic issues systematically was

Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...

in his ''Vāda-vidhi'' ("A Method for Argumentation"), who was influenced by the Hindu work on reasoning, the '' Nyāya-sūtra''.Anacker, Stefan (2005, rev.ed.). ''Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor. '' Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. (First published: 1984; Reprinted: 1986, 1994, 1998; Corrected: 2002; Revised: 2005), p. 31 A mature system of Buddhist logic and epistemology was founded by the Buddhist scholar

Dignāga Dignāga (a.k.a. ''Diṅnāga'', c. 480 – c. 540 CE) was an Indian Buddhist scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā''). Dignāga's work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and ...

(c. 480–540 CE) in his ''magnum opus'', the '' Pramāṇa-samuccaya''.Alt URL
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Dharmakirti Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th century; Tibetan: ཆོས་ཀྱི་གྲགས་པ་; Wylie: ''chos kyi grags pa''), was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā.Tom Tillemans (2011)Dharmakirti Stanford ...

further developed this system with several innovations. Dharmakirti's ''

Pramanavarttika The ''Pramāṇavārttika'' (Brahmi: 𑀧𑁆𑀭𑀫𑀸𑀡𑀯𑀸𑀭𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀺𑀓, ''Commentary on Valid Cognition''; Tib. ''tshad ma rnam 'grel'') is an influential Buddhist text on pramana (valid instruments of knowledge, episte ...

'' ('Commentary on Valid Cognition') became the main source of epistemology and reasoning in

Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in maj ...

Definition

Scholars such as H.N. Randle and

Fyodor Shcherbatskoy Fyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky (Фёдор Ипполи́тович Щербатско́й) (11 September (N.S.) 1866 – 18 March 1942), often referred to in the literature as F. Th. Stcherbatsky, was a Russian Indologist who, ...

(1930s) initially employed terms such as “Indian Logic” and “Buddhist Logic” to refer to the Indian tradition of

inference Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises to logical consequences; etymologically, the word ''infer'' means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into deduction and induction, a distinction that in ...

(

anumana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

(

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

tradition known as

Nyaya ( Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Buddhist philosophy. Logic in classical India, writes

Bimal Krishna Matilal Bimal Krishna Matilal (1 June 1935 – 8 June 1991) was an eminent British-Indian philosopher whose writings presented the Indian philosophical tradition as a comprehensive system of logic incorporating most issues addressed by themes in Wester ...

, is "the systematic study of informal inference-patterns, the rules of debate, the identification of sound inference vis-à-vis sophistical argument, and similar topics".Matilal, Bimal Krishna (author), Ganeri, Jonardon (editor) & (Tiwari, Heeraman)(1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. (HC:acid free), p.12 As Matilal notes, this tradition developed out systematic debate theory (''vadavidya''):

Logic as the study of the form of correct arguments and inference patterns, developed in India from the methodology of philosophical debate. The art of conducting a philosophical debate was prevalent probably as early as the time of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
and the
Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6 ...
(Jina), but it became more systematic and methodical a few hundred years later.

‘Indian Logic’ should be understood as being a different system of logic than modern

classical logic Classical logic (or standard logic or Frege-Russell logic) is the intensively studied and most widely used class of deductive logic. Classical logic has had much influence on analytic philosophy. Characteristics Each logical system in this class ...

(e.g. modern

predicate calculus Predicate or predication may refer to: * Predicate (grammar), in linguistics * Predication (philosophy) * several closely related uses in mathematics and formal logic: **Predicate (mathematical logic) **Propositional function **Finitary relation, o ...

), but as ''anumāna''-theory, a system in its own right. ‘Indian Logic’ was also influenced by the study of grammar, whereas Classical Logic which principally informed modern Western Logic was influenced by the study of mathematics.Matilal, Bimal Krishna (author), Ganeri, Jonardon (editor) & (Tiwari, Heeraman)(1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. (HC:acid free), p. 14 A key difference between Western Logic and Indian Logic is that certain epistemological issues are included within Indian Logic, whereas in modern Western Logic they are deliberately excluded. Indian Logic includes general questions regarding the ‘nature of the derivation of knowledge’,

epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

, from information supplied by evidence, evidence which in turn may be another item of knowledge. For this reason, other scholars use the term "logico-epistemology" to refer to this tradition, emphasizing the centrality of the epistemic project for Indian logical reasoning. According to Georges Dreyfus, while Western logic tends to be focused on formal validity and deduction:

The concern of Indian "logicians" is quite different. They intend to provide a critical and systematic analysis of the diverse means of correct cognition that we use practically in our quest for knowledge. In this task, they discuss the nature and types of pramana. Although Indian philosophers disagree on the types of cognition that can be considered valid, most recognize perception and inference as valid. Within this context, which is mostly epistemological and practically oriented, topics such as the nature and types of correct reasoning that pertain to logic in the large sense of the word are discussed.

Pramana

Pramāṇa ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

pramana from what is generally understood as Orthodox Hindu philosophy is the issue of

epistemological Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

justification. All schools of

Indian logic The development of Indian logic dates back to the ''anviksiki'' of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd centu ...

recognize various sets of 'valid justifications for knowledge' or ''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",perception Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system ...

' (Sanskrit: pratyakṣa) and 'inference' (Sanskrit: anumāna), but for some schools of orthodox Hinduism the 'received textual tradition' (Sanskrit: āgamāḥ) is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference. The Buddhist logical tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti accept scriptural tradition ''only'' if it accords with pratyakṣa and anumāna. This view is thus in line with the Buddha's injunction in the ''

Kalama Sutta The Kesamutti Sutta, popularly known in the West as the Kālāma Sutta, is a discourse of the Buddha contained in the Aṅguttara Nikaya (3.65) of the Tipiṭaka. It is often cited by those of the Theravada and Mahayana traditions alike as the ...

'' not to accept anything on mere tradition or scripture.

Early Buddhist background

Epistemology

The time of the Gautama Buddha was a lively intellectual culture with many differing philosophical theories. KN Jayatilleke, in his "Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge", uses the Pali Nikayas to glean the possible epistemological views of the historical Buddha and those of his contemporaries. According to his analysis of the ''Saṅgārava-sutta'' ( AN 3.60), during the Buddha's time, Indian views were divided into three major camps with regards to knowledge: *The Traditionalists (''anussavika'') who regarded knowledge as being derived from scriptural sources (the Brahmins who upheld the Vedas). *The Rationalists (''takki vimamsi'') who only used reasoning or ''takka'' (the skeptics and materialists). *The "Experientialists" who held that besides reasoning, a kind of supra-normal yogic insight was able to bring about unique forms of knowledge (the

Jains Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

, the middle and late

Upanishadic The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

sages). The Buddha rejected the first view in several texts such as the ''

Kalama sutta The Kesamutti Sutta, popularly known in the West as the Kālāma Sutta, is a discourse of the Buddha contained in the Aṅguttara Nikaya (3.65) of the Tipiṭaka. It is often cited by those of the Theravada and Mahayana traditions alike as the ...

'', arguing that a claim to scriptural authority (''sadda'') was not a source of knowledge, as was claimed by the later Hindu Mimamsa school. The Buddha also seems to have criticized those who used reason (''takka''). According to Jayatilleke, in the Pali Nikayas, this term refers "primarily to denote the reasoning that was employed to construct and defend metaphysical theories and perhaps meant the reasoning of sophists and dialecticians only in a secondary sense". The Buddha rejected metaphysical speculations, and put aside certain questions which he named the unanswerables (''avyakatas''), including questions about the soul and if the universe is eternal or not. The Buddha's epistemological view has been a subject of debate among modern scholars. Some such as

David Kalupahana David J. Kalupahana (1936–2014) was a Buddhist scholar from Sri Lanka. He was a student of the late K.N. Jayatilleke, who was a student of Wittgenstein. He wrote mainly about epistemology, theory of language, and compared later Buddhist philo ...

, have seen him first and foremost as an

empiricist In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiri ...

because of his teaching that knowledge required verification through the six sense fields ( ayatanas). The ''

'' states that verification through one's own personal experience (and the experiences of the wise) is an important means of knowledge. However, the Buddha's view of truth was also based on the soteriological and therapeutic concern of ending suffering. In the ''"Discourse to Prince Abhaya"'' (MN.I.392–4) the Buddha states that a belief should only be accepted if it leads to wholesome consequences. This has led scholars such as Mrs Rhys Davids and Vallée-Poussin to see the Buddha's view as a form of

Pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality. Pr ...

. This sense of truth as what is useful is also shown by the Buddha's parable of the arrow. K. N. Jayatilleke sees Buddha's epistemological view as a kind of

empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiric ...

which also includes a particular view of causation (

dependent origination A dependant is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included in this definition. In some jurisdictions, supporting a dependant may enab ...

): "inductive

s in Buddhism are based on a theory of causation. These inferences are made on the data of

perception Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system ...

. What is considered to constitute knowledge are direct inferences made on the basis of such perceptions." Jayatilleke argues the Buddhas statements in the Nikayas tacitly imply an adherence to some form of

correspondence theory In metaphysics and philosophy of language, the correspondence theory of truth states that the truth or falsity of a statement is determined only by how it relates to the world and whether it accurately describes (i.e., corresponds with) that world ...

, this is most explicit in the ''Apannaka Sutta'' ( MN 60). He also notes that

Coherentism In philosophical epistemology, there are two types of coherentism: the coherence theory of truth; and the coherence theory of justification (also known as epistemic coherentism). Coherent truth is divided between an anthropological approach, whi ...

is also taken as a criterion for truth in the Nikayas, which contains many instances of the Buddha debating opponents by showing how they have contradicted themselves. He also notes that the Buddha seems to have held that utility and truth go hand in hand, and therefore something which is true is also useful (and vice versa, something false is not useful for ending suffering). Echoing this view, Christian Coseru writes:

canonical sources make quite clear that several distinct factors play a crucial role in the acquisition of knowledge. These are variously identified with the testimony of sense experience, introspective or intuitive experience, inferences drawn from these two types of experience, and some form of coherentism, which demands that truth claims remain consistent across the entire corpus of doctrine. Thus, to the extent that Buddhists employ reason, they do so primarily in order further to advance the empirical investigation of phenomena.Coseru, Christian. Reason and Experience in Buddhist Epistemology In Steven Emmanuel (ed.), ''A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy''. Wiley-Blackwell (2013)

Debate and analysis

The

Early Buddhist Texts Early Buddhist texts (EBTs), early Buddhist literature or early Buddhist discourses are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chine ...

show that during this period many different kinds of philosophers often engaged in public debates (''vivada''). The early texts also mention that there was a set procedure (''patipada'') for these debates and that if someone does not abide by it they are unsuitable to be debated. There also seems to have been at least a basic conception of valid and invalid reasoning, including, according to Jayatilleke, fallacies (''hetvabhasah'') such as '' petitio principii''. Various fallacies were further covered under what were called ''nigrahasthana'' or "reasons for censure" by which one could lose the debate. Other ''nigrahasthanas'' included ''arthantaram'' or "shifting the topic", and not giving a coherent reply. According to Jayatilleke, ' pure reasoning' or '

a priori ("from the earlier") and ("from the later") are Latin phrases used in philosophy to distinguish types of knowledge, justification, or argument by their reliance on empirical evidence or experience. knowledge is independent from current ex ...

' reasoning is rejected by the Buddha as a source of knowledge. While reason could be useful in deliberation, it could not establish truth on its own. In contrast to his opponents, the Buddha termed himself a defender of 'analysis' or vibhajjavada'''. He held that after proper rational analysis, assertions could be classified in the following way: *Those assertions which can be asserted or denied categorically (''ekamsika'') *Those which cannot be asserted or denied categorically (''anekamsika''), which the Buddha further divided into: **Those which after analysis (''vibhajja-'') could be known to be true or false. **Those like the ''avyakata''-theses, which could not be thus known. This view of analysis differed from that of the

, which held that all views were ''anekamsika'' and also were relative, that is, they were true or false depending on the standpoint one viewed it from ('' anekantavada''). The early texts also mention that the Buddha held there to be 'four kinds of explanations of questions". * a question which ought to be explained categorically * a question which ought to be answered with a counter question * a question which ought to be set aside (''thapaniya'') * a question which ought to be explained analytically The Buddha also made use of various terms which reveal some of his views on meaning and language. For example, he held that many concepts or designations (''paññatti'') could be used in conventional everyday speech while at the same time not referring to anything that exists ultimately (such as the pronouns like "I" and "Me"). Richard Hayes likewise points to the ''Potthapada sutta'' as an example of the Early Buddhist tendency towards a

nominalist In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are at least two main versions of nominalism. One version denies the existence of universalsthings th ...

perspective on language and meaning in contrast to the

Brahmanical The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...

view which tended to see language as reflecting real existents. The Buddha also divided statements (''bhasitam'') into two types with regards to their meaning: those which were intelligible, meaningful (''sappatihirakatam'') and those meaningless or incomprehensible (''appatihirakatam''). According to Jayatilleke, "in the Nikayas it is considered meaningless to make a statement unless the speaker could attach a verifiable content to each of its terms." This is why the Buddha held that statements about the existence of a self or soul ('' atman'') were ultimately meaningless, because they could not be verified. The Buddha, like his contemporaries, also made use of the "four corners" (''

catuṣkoṭi ''Catuṣkoṭi'' (Sanskrit; Devanagari: चतुष्कोटि, , Sinhalese:චතුස්කෝටිකය) is a logical argument(s) of a 'suite of four discrete functions' or 'an indivisible quaternity' that has multiple applications an ...

'') logical structure as a tool in argumentation. According to Jayatilleke, these "four forms of predication" can be rendered thus: #S is P, e.g. ''atthi paro loko'' (there is a next world). #S is not P, e.g. ''natthi paro loko'' (there is no next world). #S is and is not P, e.g. ''atthi ca natthi ca paro loko'' (there is and is no next world). #S neither is nor is not P, e.g. ''n'ev'atthi na natthi paro loko'' (there neither is nor is there no next world) The Buddha in the Nikayas seems to regard these as "'the four possible positions or logical alternatives that a proposition can take". Jayatilleke notes that the last two are clearly non- Aristotelian in nature. The Buddhists in the Nikayas use this logical structure to analyze the truth of statements and classify them. When all four were denied regarding a statement or question, it was held to be meaningless and thus set aside or rejected (but ''not negated'').

Two levels of Truth

The early texts mention two modes of discourse used by the Buddha. Jayatilleke writes:

when he is speaking about things or persons we should not presume that he is speaking about entities or substances; to this extent his meaning is to be inferred (''neyyattha-''). But when he is pointing out the misleading implications of speech or using language without these implications, his meaning is plain and direct and nothing is to be inferred (''nitattha-''). This is a valid distinction which certainly holds good for the Nikäyas at least, in the light of the above-statement.

The later commentarial and

Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...

literature began to use this distinction as an epistemic one. They spoke of two levels of truth, the conventional (''samutti)'', and the absolute (''paramattha''). This theory of double truth became very influential in later Buddhist epistemic discourse.

''Kathāvatthu''

The

Theravada ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school ...

'' (''Points of Controversy'') is a Pali Buddhist text which discusses the proper method for critical discussions on doctrine. Its date is debated by scholars but it might date to the time of

Ashoka Ashoka (, ; also ''Asoka''; 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Maurya Empire of Indian subcontinent during to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, s ...

(C. 240 BC). Western scholarship by St. Schayer and following him

A. K. Warder Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011). Life W ...

, have argued that there is an "anticipations of propositional logic" in the text. However, according to Jonardon Ganeri "the leading concern of the text is with issues of ''balance'' and ''fairness'' in the conduct of a dialogue and it recommends a strategy of argumentation which guarantees that both parties to a point of controversy have their arguments properly weighed and considered."Ganeri, Jonardon. Argumentation, dialogue and the "Kathāvatthu", Journal of Indian Philosophy August 2001, Volume 29, Issue 4, pp. 485–493 In the ''Kathāvatthu'', a proper reasoned dialogue (''vadayutti'') is structured as follows: there is a point of contention – whether A is B; this is divided into several 'openings' (''atthamukha''): #Is A B? #Is A not B? #Is A B everywhere? #Is A B always? #Is A B in everything? #Is A not B everywhere? #Is A not B always? #Is A not B in everything? These help clarify the attitude of someone towards their thesis in the proceeding argumentative process. Jonardon Ganeri outlines the process thus:

Each such ‘opening’ now proceeds as an independent dialogue, and each is divided into five stages: the way forward (anuloma), the way back (patikamma), the refutation (niggaha), the application (upanayana) and the conclusion (niggamana). In the way forward, the proponent solicits from the respondent the endorsement of a thesis and then tries to argue against it. On the way back, the respondent turns the tables, soliciting from the proponent the endorsement of the counter-thesis, and then trying argue against it. In the refutation, the respondent, continuing, seeks to refute the argument that the proponent had advanced against the thesis. The application and conclusion repeat and reaffirm that the proponent’s argument against the respondent’s thesis is unsound, while the respondent’s argument against the proponent’s counter-thesis is sound.

''Milindapanha''

Another Buddhist text which depicts the standards for rational debate among Buddhists is the ''

Milindapanha The ''Milinda Pañha'' () is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD. It purports to record a dialogue between the Indian Buddhist sage Nāgasena, and the 2nd century BC Indo-Greek king Menander I (Pali: ''Milinda' ...

'' (''"Questions of

Menander Menander (; grc-gre, Μένανδρος ''Menandros''; c. 342/41 – c. 290 BC) was a Greek dramatist and the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy. He wrote 108 comedies and took the prize at the Lenaia festival eight times. His rec ...

"'', 1st century BCE) which is a dialogue between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and an Indo-Greek King. In describing the art of debate and dialogue, Nagasena states:

When scholars talk a matter over one with another, then is there a winding up, an unravelling, one or other is convicted of error, and he then acknowledges his mistake; distinctions are drawn, and contra-distinctions; and yet thereby they are not angered.Dov M. Gabbay John Woods (editors). Greek, Indian and Arabic Logic, Volume 1. 1st Edition. 2004. p. 310.

The various elements outlined here make up the standard procedure of Buddhist debate theory. There is an 'unravelling' or explication (''nibbethanam'') of one's thesis and stances and then there is also a 'winding up' ending in the censure (''niggaho'') of one side based on premises he has accepted and the rejoinders of his opponent.

Abhidharma views

The Buddhist Abhidharma schools developed a classification of four types of reasoning which became widely used in Buddhist thought. The

Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...

philosopher

Asanga Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') (fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed ...

in his ''

Abhidharma-samuccaya The Abhidharma-samuccaya (Sanskrit; ; English: "Compendium of Abhidharma") is a Buddhist text composed by Asaṅga. The ''Abhidharma-samuccaya'' is a systematic account of Abhidharma. According to J. W. de Jong it is also "one of the most import ...

'', outlines these four reasons (''yukti'') that one may use to inquire about the nature of things. According to Cristian Coseru these are: #The principle of dependence (apeksāyukti), which takes into account the fact that conditioned things necessarily arise in dependence upon conditions: it is a principle of reason, for instance, that sprouts depend on seeds. #The principle of causal efficacy (kāryakāranayukti), which accounts for the difference between things in terms of the different causal conditions for their apprehension: it is a principle of reason, thus, that, in dependence upon form, a faculty of vision, and visual awareness, one has visual rather than, say, auditory or tactile experiences. #The realization of evidence from experience (sāksātkriyāsādhanayukti). We realize the presence of water from moisture and of fire from smoke. #The principle of natural reasoning, or the principle of reality (dharmatāyukti), which concerns the phenomenal character of things as perceived (for instance, the wetness and fluidity of water). According to Coseru "what we have here are examples of natural reasoning or of reasoning from experience, rather than attempts to use deliberative modes of reasoning for the purpose of justifying a given thesis or arguing for its conditions of satisfaction."

Nyaya influences

4 Pramanas, epistemology according to ancient Nyayasutras

The

Nyāya Sūtras The ''Nyāya Sūtras'' is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text composed by , and the foundational text of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy. The date when the text was composed, and the biography of its author is unknown, but variously esti ...

of Gotama (6th century BC – 2nd century CE) is the founding text of the Nyaya school. The text systematically lays out logical rules for argumentation in the form of a five-step schema and also sets forth a theory of epistemology.Dov M. Gabbay John Woods (editors). Greek, Indian and Arabic Logic, Volume 1. 1st Edition. 2004. page 321 According to Jonardon Ganeri, the Nyaya sutra brought about a transformation in Indian thinking about logic. First, it began a shift away from interest in argumentation and debate towards the formal properties of sound

. Secondly, the Nyaya sutra led a shift to rule-governed forms of logical thinking. BK Matilal outlines the five steps or limbs of the Nyaya method of reasoning as follows:Matilal, Bimal Krishna (author), Ganeri, Jonardon (editor) & (Tiwari, Heeraman)(1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. (HC:acid free), p.4 #There is fire on the hill. hesis#For there is smoke. eason#(Wherever there is smoke, there is fire), as in the kitchen. xample#This is such a case (smoke on the hill). #Therefore, it is so, i.e., there is fire on the hill. Later Buddhist thinkers like Vasubandhu would see several of these steps as redundant and would affirm that only the first two or three were necessary. The Naiyayikas (the Nyaya scholars) also accepted four valid means (''pramaṇa'') of obtaining valid knowledge (''pramana'') - perception (''pratyakṣa''), inference (''anumāna''), comparison ('' upamāna'') and word/testimony of reliable sources (''śabda''). The systematic discussions of the Nyaya school influenced the Medieval Buddhist philosophers who developed their own theories of inferential reasoning and epistemic warrant (pramana). The Nyaya became one of the main opponents of the Buddhists.

Mahayana Buddhist philosophy

Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka

Nagarjuna Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...

(c. 150 – c. 250 CE), one of the most influential Buddhist thinkers, defended the theory of the emptiness ('' shunyata'') of

phenomena A phenomenon ( : phenomena) is an observable event. The term came into its modern philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be directly observed. Kant was heavily influenced by Gottfried W ...

and attacked theories that posited an essence or true existence (''

svabhava Svabhava ( sa, स्वभाव, svabhāva; pi, सभाव, sabhāva; ; ) literally means "own-being" or "own-becoming". It is the intrinsic nature, essential nature or essence of beings. The concept and term ''svabhāva'' are frequently enco ...

'') to phenomena in his magnum opus ''The Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way''. He used the Buddhist

("four corners" or "four positions") to construct

reductio ad absurdum In logic, (Latin for "reduction to absurdity"), also known as (Latin for "argument to absurdity") or ''apagogical arguments'', is the form of argument that attempts to establish a claim by showing that the opposite scenario would lead to absu ...

arguments against numerous theories which posited essences to certain phenomena, such as causality and movement. In Nagarjuna's works and those of his followers, the four positions on a particular thesis are negated or ruled out (Sk. ''pratiṣedha'') as exemplified by the first verse of Nagarjuna's Middle way verses which focuses on a critique of causation:

"Entities of any kind are not ever found anywhere produced from themselves, from another, from both hemselves and another and also from no cause."

Nagarjuna also famously relied upon refutation based argumentation (''vitanda'') drawing out the consequences (''prasaṅga'') and presuppositions of his opponents' own theories and showing them to be self refuting. Because the ''vaitandika'' only seeks to disprove his opponents arguments without putting forward a thesis of his own, the Hindu Nyaya school philosophers such as Vatsyayana saw it as unfair and also irrational (because if you argue against P, you must have a thesis, mainly not-P).Matilal, Bimal Krishna, 'The Character of Logic in India' State University of New York Press 1998, p. 52 According to Matilal, Nagarjuna's position of not putting forth any implied thesis through his refutations would be rational if seen as a form of

illocutionary act The concept of illocutionary acts was introduced into linguistics by the philosopher J. L. Austin in his investigation of the various aspects of speech acts. In his framework, ''locution'' is what was said and meant, ''illocution'' is what was done, ...

. Nagarjuna's reductions and the structure of the

became very influential in the Buddhist

Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhis ...

school of philosophy which sees itself as a continuation of Nagarjuna's thought. Nagarjuna also discusses the four modes of knowing of the Nyaya school, but he is unwilling to accept that such epistemic means bring us ultimate knowledge. Nagarjuna's epistemic stance continues to be debated among modern scholars, his skepticism of the ability of reason and language to capture the nature of reality and his view of reality as being empty of true existence have led some to see him as a skeptic, mystic, nihilist or agnostic, while others interpret him as a Wittgensteinian analyst, an anti-realist, or deconstructionist. Nagarjuna is also said to be the author of the ''Upāyaśṛdaya'' one of the first Buddhist texts on proper reasoning and argumentation.Tillemans, "Buddhist Epistemology (pramāṇavāda)" in William Edelglass and Jay L. Garfield (Editors) ''Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy.'' He also developed the Buddhist theory of two truths, defending ultimate truth as the truth of emptiness.

Vasubandhu

was one of the first Buddhist thinkers to write various works on sound reasoning and debate, including the ''Vādavidhi'' (Methods of Debate), and the ''Vādavidhāna'' (Rules of Debate). Vasubandhu was influenced by the system of the Nyaya school. Vasubandhu introduced the concept of 'logical pervasion' ('' vyapti''). He also introduced the trairūpya (triple inferential sign). The trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (''linga'') must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' (

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".

(c. 480 – 540 CE) is the founder of an eponymouns tradition of Buddhist logic and epistemology which was widely influential in Indian philosophy due to the introduction of unique epistemological questions. According to B.K. Matilal, Dignāga "was perhaps the most creative logician in medieval (400-1100) India." Dignāga's tradition of Buddhist logic is sometimes called the "School of Dignāga" or "The School of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti".Westerhoff, Jan (2018). ''The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy,'' p. 217. Oxford University Press. In Tibetan, it is often called “those who follow reasoning” (Tibetan: ''rigs pa rjes su ‘brang ba''); in modern literature, it is sometimes known by the

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the la ...

"pramāṇavāda", often translated as "the epistemological school" or "the logico-epistemological school." Dignāga defended the validity of only two

pramāṇa ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Pramāṇa-samuccaya.'' His theory does not "make a radical distinction between epistemology and the psychological processes of cognition.""Coseru, Christian. Reason and Experience in Buddhist Epistemology In Steven Emmanuel (ed.), ''A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy''. Wiley-Blackwell (2013) As noted by Cristian Coseru, Dignāga's theory of knowledge is strongly grounded in perception "as an epistemic modality for establishing a cognitive event as knowledge". Since perception is information that is acquired through the senses, it is not susceptible to error. However, there is susceptibility to error in processes of interpretation, including mental construction and inferential thinking. Dignāga also wrote on language and meaning. His "apoha" (exclusion) theory of meaning was widely influential. For Dignāga, a word can express its own meaning only by repudiating other meanings. The word 'cow' gives its own meaning only by the exclusion of all those things which are other than cow.

Dharmakīrti

Following Dignāga,

Dharmakīrti Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th century; Tibetan: ཆོས་ཀྱི་གྲགས་པ་; Wylie: ''chos kyi grags pa''), was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā.Tom Tillemans (2011)Dharmakirti Stanford ...

(c. 7th century), contributed significantly to the development and application of Buddhist pramana theory. Dharmakīrti's '' Pramāṇavārttika'', remains in

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...

as a central text on pramana and was widely commented on by various Indian and Tibetan scholars. Dharmakīrti's theory of epistemology differed from Dignāga's by introducing the idea that for something to be a valid cognition it must "confirm causal efficacy" (''arthakriyāsthiti'') which "consists in his cognition’scompliance with he object’s capacity toperform a function" (''Pramāṇavārttika'' 2.1ac). He was also one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist or be ultimately real are momentary particulars (''svalakṣaṇa'') including material atoms and momentary states of consciousness (dharmas).Prasad, Rajendra (2002). ''Dharmakirti's Theory of Inference: Revaluation and Reconstruction''. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Everything else is considered to be only conventional (''saṃvṛtisat'') and thus he has been seen as a nominalist, like Dignāga. Vincent Eltschinger has argued that Buddhist epistemology, especially Dharmakīrti's, was an apologetic response to attacks by hostile Hindu opponents and thus was seen by Buddhists as "that which, by defeating the outsiders, removes the obstacles to the path towards liberation." Coseru meanwhile simply notes the inseparability of epistemic concerns from spiritual praxis for Buddhist epistemologists such as Dharmakīrti:

It is this praxis that leads a representative thinker such as Dharmakīrti to claim that the Buddha, whose view he and his successors claim to propound, is a true embodiment of the sources of knowledge. Thus, far from seeing a tension between empirical scrutiny and the exercise of reason, the Buddhist epistemological enterprise positions itself not merely as a dialogical disputational method for avoiding unwarranted beliefs, but as a practice aimed at achieving concrete, pragmatic ends. As Dharmakīrti reminds his fellow Buddhists, the successful accomplishment of any human goal is wholly dependent on having correct knowledge.

Later figures of the tradition

The Buddhist philosophers who are part of this pramāṇavāda tradition include numerous other figures who followed Dignāga and Dharmakīrti. They developed their theories further, commented on their works and defended their theories against Hindu and Buddhist opponents. Fyodor Stcherbatsky divided the followers and commentators on Dharmakirti into three main groups: * The philological school of commentators, these figures (such as Devendrabuddhi) focused on "exactly rendering the direct meaning of the commented text without losing oneself in its deeper implications". They all commented on the ''Pramāṇavārttika.'' * The Kashmiri school of philosophy, which sought to "disclose the deep philosophic contents of the system of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, regarding it as a critical system of logic and epistemology." Its founding figure was Dharmottara (8th century). * The religious school of commentators, who sought to "disclose the profound meaning of Dharmakirti's works and to reveal their concealed ultimate tendency." Unlike the Kashmiri school, which saw Dharmakīrti's work as primarily focused on epistemology and reasoning, the "religious" school used Dharmakīrti in order to develop and comment on the entirety of the metaphysics of Mahayana Buddhism. The founder of this school was the layman Prajñakaragupta (740–800 C.E.), apparently a native of

Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predo ...

. Some of the other figures of the epistemological school include: * Īśvarasena, a disciple of Dignāga, and teacher of Dharmakīrti * Śaṅkarasvāmin, wrote an introduction to Dignāga's logic * Jinendrabuddhi (7th or 8th century), a commentator on Dignāga's ''Pramanasamuccaya'' *Bāhuleya, a commentator on Dignāga's ''Nyāyamukha'' *

Śāntarakṣita (Sanskrit; , 725–788),stanford.eduŚāntarakṣita (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)/ref> whose name translates into English as "protected by the One who is at peace" was an important and influential Indian Buddhist philosopher, particul ...

(725–788), merged the pramana tradition with

Kamalaśīla Kamalaśīla (Skt. Kamalaśīla; Tib. པདྨའི་ངང་ཚུལ་, Pemé Ngang Tsul; Wyl. pad+ma'i ngang tshul) (c. 740-795) was an Indian Buddhist of Nalanda Mahavihara who accompanied Śāntarakṣita (725–788) to Tibet at t ...

, a student of

*Śubhakara (650–750), was particularly noteworthy because he composed a work which aimed at proving the objective reality of external things and thus attempted to disprove ''Vijñānavāda'' (the doctrine of consciousness, idealism) * Śākyabuddhi (ca. 700 C.E.), wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Pramāṇavārttika'' *Chandragomin, purported author of the *''Nyāyasiddhyāloka'' * Dharmottara (8th century), a philosopher from Kashmir who wrote some independent works and also a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Nyāyabindu'' and on his ''Pramanaviniscaya.'' *Anandavardhana, wrote a sub commentary to Dharmottara's ''Pramana-viniscaya commentary.'' * Vinītadeva (8th century), wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Nyāyabindu'' * Śāntabhadra, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Nyāyabindu'' *Jinamitra, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Nyāyabindu'' * Devendrabuddhi (7th century), wrote various commentaries, including one on Dharmakīrti's ''Pramāṇavārttika'' * Karṇakagomin, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Pramāṇavārttika'' * Manorathanandin, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Pramāṇavārttika'' *Śakyamati, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Pramāṇavārttika'' *Arcaṭa, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's ''Hetubindu'' * Prajñakaragupta (740–800 C.E.), author of the ''Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāra'' ("Ornament of the ''Pramāṇavārttikā"'') *Jina, a follower of Prajñakaragupta *Ravigupta, a follower of Prajñakaragupta *Yamari, a follower of Prajñakaragupta *Śubhagupta (720–780), was a Vaibhāṣika writer on pramana, according to Kamalaśīla * Śaṅkaranandana (10th century), a prolific author of at least 17 texts, known as "the second Dharmakīrti." * Jñanasrimitra (975–1025), a "gate-scholar" at

Vikramashila Vikramashila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला, IAST: , Bengali:- বিক্রমশিলা, Romanisation:- Bikrômôśilā ) was one of the three most important Buddhist monasteries in India during the Pala Empire, along with ...

who wrote several original works *Paṇḍita Aśoka (980–1040) *Jñanasribhadra (1000–1100), wrote a commentary on the ''Pramāṇaviniścaya'' (Dharmakīrti) *Jayanta (1020–1080), author of the ''Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāraṭīkā,'' a commentary on Prajñakaragupta's text. *Jitāri or Jetāri (940–1000), teacher of Atisha and author of numerous pramana texts. *Durvekamiśra (970–1030), a disciple of Jitāri * Ratnakīrti (11th century), a student of Jñanasrimitra * Mokṣākaragupta (11th–12th centuries), author of the ''Tarkabhāṣā'' *Vidyākaraśānti (1100–1200), author of the ''Tarkasopāna'' * Śākyaśrībhadra, a Kashmiri pandita who was the teacher of the Tibetan

Sakya Pandita Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (Tibetan: ས་སྐྱ་པཎ་ཌི་ཏ་ཀུན་དགའ་རྒྱལ་མཚན, ) (1182 – 28 November 1251) was a Tibetan spiritual leader and Buddhist scholar and the fourth of the Five ...

Influence and reception

Dignāga also influenced non-Buddhist Sanskrit thinkers. According to Lawrence J. McCrea, and Parimal G. Patil, Dignaga set in motion an "epistemic turn" in Indian philosophy: The Hindu philosophers, especially those of the Nyāya, Vaiseshika and

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

schools, were in constant debate with the Buddhist epistemologists, developing arguments to defend their realist position against the

nominalism In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are at least two main versions of nominalism. One version denies the existence of universalsthings ...

of the Buddhists. Nyāya-Vaiseshika thinkers such as Uddyotakara and

Prashastapada ( sa, प्रशस्तपाद) was an ancient Indian philosopher. He wrote the ''Padārtha-dharma-saṅgraha'' (Collection of Properties of Matter) and a commentary, titled ''Praśastapāda Bhāṣya'', on the Vaisheshika Sutras of Kana ...

critiqued the views of Dignaga as they developed their own philosophy. Vācaspati Miśra's ''Nyāya-vārtika-tātparya-tikā'' is almost entirely focused on outlining and defeating the arguments of the Buddhist epistemologists.

Prabhākara Prabhākara (active c. 6th century) was an Indian philosopher-grammarian in the Mīmāṃsā tradition of Kerala. Probable date Hariswamin's commentary on Shatapatha Brahmana which dates to 638 CE discusses the doctrine of Prabhākara's fol ...

(active c. 6th century) meanwhile, may have been influenced by Buddhist reasoning to move away from some of the realistic views of older

Mīmāṃsā ''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts.

thought. The Vedanta scholar Śrīharṣa who attacked the realism of Nyāya may have been influenced by the Buddhists as well. Even the "New Reason" ('' Navya Nyāya'') scholar Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya shows an influence from the Buddhist epistemological school, in his arrangement of his ''Tattvacintāmaṇi.''

Epistemology in the later Mādhyamaka school

Bhāvaviveka

Bhāvaviveka (c. 500 – c. 578) appears to be the first Buddhist logician to employ the 'formal syllogism' (Wylie: ''sbyor ba'i tshig''; Sanskrit: ''prayoga-vākya'') in expounding the

Mādhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhis ...

view, which he employed to considerable effect in his commentary to

's ''

Mūlamadhyamakakārikā The ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'' ( sa, मूलमध्यमककारिका, ''Root Verses on the Middle Way''), abbreviated as ''MMK'', is the foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy. It was compose ...

'' entitled the ''Prajñāpradīpa''. To develop his arguments for emptiness, Bhāvaviveka drew on the work of Dignāga which put forth a new way of presenting logical arguments. Bhāvaviveka was later criticized by

Chandrakirti Chandrakirti (; ; , meaning "glory of the moon" in Sanskrit) or "Chandra" was a Buddhist scholar of the madhyamaka school and a noted commentator on the works of Nagarjuna () and those of his main disciple, Aryadeva. He wrote two influential w ...

(540-600) for his use of these positive logical arguments. For

, a true Mādhyamika only uses ''

'' arguments and does not put forth positive arguments. Chandrakirti saw in the logico-epistemic tradition a commitment to a foundationalist epistemology and essentialist ontology. For Chandrakirti, a Mādhyamika's job should be to just deconstruct concepts which presuppose an essence.Dreyfus, Georges B. J. 'Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations.' SUNY Press, 1997, p. 19.

The Svātantrika Mādhyamikas

In spite of Chandrakirti's critique, later Buddhist philosophers continued to explain Madhyamaka philosophy through the use of formal syllogisms as well as adopting the conceptual schemas of the Dignaga-Dharmakirti school (and the closely related

Yogacara Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through ...

school). These figures include Jñanagarbha (700–760),

(725–788),

Haribhadra Aacharya Haribhadra Suri was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader, philosopher , doxographer, and author. There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. According to tradition, he lived c. 459–529 CE. However, in 1919, a Jain m ...

and

Ratnākaraśānti Ratnākaraśānti (also known as Śāntipa) (c. 10th-century CE) was one of the eighty-four Buddhist Mahāsiddhas and a monk at the monastic university of Vikramashila in what is now modern-day Bihar in India. At Vikramashila he was instructed by ...

(c.1000). Another thinker who worked on both pramana and Madhyamaka was the Kashmiri pandita Parahitabhadra. This tendency within Madhyamaka is termed ''Svātantrika'', while Chandrakirti's stance is termed ''Prasangika''. The Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction is a central topic of debate in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy. Probably the most influential figure in this tradition is Śāntarakṣita. According to James Blumenthal

Śāntarakṣita attempted to integrate the anti-essentialism of Nāgārjuna with the logico-epistemological thought of Dignāga (''ca.'' 6th c.) and Dharmakīrti (''ca.'' 7th c.) along with facets of Yogācāra/Cittamātra thought into one internally consistent, yet fundamentally Madhyamaka system.

This synthesis is one of the last major developments in Indian Buddhist thought, and has been influential on Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.

In the Tibetan tradition

Tom Tillemans, in discussing the Tibetan translation and assimilation of the logico-epistemological tradition, identifies two currents and transmission streams: The first is the tradition of the

Kadampa 300px, Tibetan Portrait of Atiśa The Kadam school () of Tibetan Buddhism was an 11th century Buddhist tradition founded by the great Bengali master Atiśa (982-1054) and his students like Dromtön (1005–1064), a Tibetan Buddhist lay maste ...

scholar Ngok Lodzawa Loden Shayrap (1059–1109) and Chapa Chögyi Sengge (1109–69) and their disciples, mainly located at Sangpu Neutok .Tillemans, Tom J.F. (1998). 'Tibetan philosophy'. In E. Craig (Ed.), ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. London: Routledge. Source

(accessed: Saturday March 14, 2009), p.1 Chapa's ''Tshad ma’i bsdus pa'' (English: 'Summaries of Epistemology and Logic') became the groundwork for the ‘Collected Topics’ (Tibetan: Düra; Wylie: bsdus grwa) literature, which in large part furnished the

Gelugpa 240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).">Bodh_Gaya.html" ;"title="Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya">Bodhgaya (India). The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuou ...

-based logical architecture and epistemology. These two scholars (whose works are now lost) strengthened the influence of

in Tibetan Buddhist scholarship. There is also another tradition of interpretation founded by

(1182–1251), who wrote the ''Tshad-ma rigs-gter'' (English: "Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition"). Sakya pandita secured the place of Dharmakirti's ''pramanavarttika'' as the foundational text on epistemology in Tibet. Later thinkers of the

Gelug 240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India). The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous")Kay, David N. (2007). ''Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantati ...

school such as Gyeltsap and Kaydrup attempted a synthesis of the two traditions, with varying results. This is because the views of Chapa were mostly that of

Philosophical realism Philosophical realism is usually not treated as a position of its own but as a stance towards other subject matters. Realism about a certain kind of thing (like numbers or morality) is the thesis that this kind of thing has ''mind-independent ex ...

, while Sakya pandita was an

anti-realist In analytic philosophy, anti-realism is a position which encompasses many varieties such as metaphysical, mathematical, semantic, scientific, moral and epistemic. The term was first articulated by British philosopher Michael Dummett in an argument ...

.Dreyfus, Georges B. J. Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations. pp. 24–25.

Lexicon

* Argument: Vada, rtsod pa * Basis of cognition: Alambana * Characteristic: laksana, mtshan nid * Condition: pratyaya, rkyen * Causal function, purpose: arthakriyā * Debate: Vivada * Demonstrandum: sadhya, bsgrub par bya ba * Demonstrator: sadhaka, grub byed * Dialectician: tartika, rtog ge ba * Dialectics: tarka, rtog ge * Direct perception: pratyaksa, mngon sum * Event: dharma, chos * Event-associate: dharmin, chos can * Exclusion: Apoha, sel ba (Anya-apoha: gzhan sel ba) * Exemplification: drstanta, dpe * Inference: anumana, rjes su dpag pa **Inference for oneself, reasoning: svārthānumāna **Inference for others, demonstration: parārthānumāna * Interference: vyavakirana, 'dres pa * Invariable concomitance: avinabhava, med na mi 'byun ba * Judgment: prajnanana, shes-rab * Justification: hetu, gtan-tshigs * Means of valid cognition:

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".pratyaksa * Universal, General attribute: Samanyalaksana

External links

Vidhabhusana, Satis Chandra (1907). History of the Mediaeval School of Indian Logic. Calcutta University.

Tobden, Tashi (Ed.in Chief); Sadhukhan, Sanjit Kumar (compiler); Dokham, Rigzin Ngodub (compiler) (1994). ''Bulletin of Tibetology: Special Volume on the History of Buddhist Logic.'' New Series, no.3. Gangtok, Sikkim: Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology

with an annotated bibliography {{Authority control Buddhist logic Nyaya Nāstika