The British occupation of Manila was an episode in the colonial history of the Philippines when the

Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain, also known as the Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in Western Europe from 1707 to the end of 1800. The state was created by the 1706 Treaty of Union and ratified by the Acts of Union 1707, which united the Kingd ...

occupied the Spanish colonial capital of

Manila Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the Capital of the Philippines, capital and second-most populous city of the Philippines after Quezon City, with a population of 1,846,513 people in 2020. Located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on ...

and the nearby port of Cavite for eighteen months, from 6 October 1762 to the first week of April 1764. The occupation was an extension of the larger

Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, was a Great Power conflict fought primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and South Asia. The protagonists were Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of Prus ...

between Britain and France, which Spain had recently entered on the side of the French. The British wanted to use Manila as an

entrepôt An entrepôt ( ; ) or transshipment port is a port, city, or trading post where merchandise may be imported, stored, or traded, usually to be exported again. Such cities often sprang up and such ports and trading posts often developed into comm ...

for trade in the region, particularly with

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

.Danley & Speelman pp. 463-464. In addition, the Spanish governor agreed to deliver a ransom to the British in exchange for the city being spared from any further sacking. However, the resistance from the provisional Spanish colonial government, established by members of the Royal Audience of Manila and led by Lieutenant Governor Simón de Anda y Salazar, whose mostly Filipino troops prevented British forces from expanding their control beyond the neighbouring towns of Manila and Cavite, led to the project's abandonment.

Background

Allegory of the Defense of the Philippines

At the time, Britain and

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

were belligerents in what was later termed the

but Spain remained neutral despite diplomatic approaches from both sides. The war began badly for the British but as it progressed the tide of the war turned strongly in their favour and the neutral Spanish government became alarmed that the string of major French losses was transforming the British into a major threat to Spanish overseas interests. France successfully negotiated a treaty with Spain known as the

Family Compact The Family Compact was a small closed group of men who exercised most of the political, economic and judicial power in Upper Canada (today's Ontario) from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in L ...

which was signed on 15 August 1761. By an ancillary secret convention, Spain committed to making preparations for war against Britain. Britain first declared war against Spain on 4 January 1762, and on 18 January 1762, Spain issued their own declaration of war against Britain. On 6 January 1762, the British Cabinet led by Prime Minister John Stuart, agreed to attack

Havana Havana (; ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.West Indies The West Indies is an island subregion of the Americas, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, which comprises 13 independent island country, island countries and 19 dependent territory, dependencies in thr ...

, and approved Colonel William Draper's scheme for taking Manila with his forces, which were already in the East Indies. Draper was commanding officer of the 79th Regiment of Foot, which was then stationed at

Madras Chennai, also known as Madras ( its official name until 1996), is the capital and largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. According to the 2011 Indian ce ...

British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...

. Weeks later, King George III of Great Britain signed the instructions which permitted Draper to implement his scheme, emphasising that by taking advantage of the 'existing war with Spain', Britain might be able to assure her post-war mercantile expansion. Manila was one of the most important trading cities in

Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...

during this period, and the

East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...

wished to extend its influence in the archipelago. As a result, there was an expectation that the commerce of Spain would suffer a 'crippling blow'. Upon arriving in India, Draper's brevet rank became brigadier general. A secret committee of the East India Company agreed to provide a civil governor for the administration of the Islands, and in July 1762, they appointed Dawsonne Drake for the post.

British conquest of Manila

On 24 September 1762, a British fleet of eight

ships of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactic known as the line of battle, which involved the two column ...

, three

frigate A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied. The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and maneuvera ...

s, and four store ships with a force of 6,839 regulars, sailors and

marines Marines (or naval infantry) are military personnel generally trained to operate on both land and sea, with a particular focus on amphibious warfare. Historically, the main tasks undertaken by marines have included Raid (military), raiding ashor ...

, sailed into

Manila Bay Manila Bay (; ) is a natural harbor that serves the Port of Manila (on Luzon), in the Philippines. Strategically located around the Manila, capital city of the Philippines, Manila Bay facilitated commerce and trade between the Philippines and ...

from Madras. The expedition, led by William Draper and

Samuel Cornish Samuel Eli Cornish (1795 – November 6, 1858) was an American Presbyterian minister, Abolitionism in the United States, abolitionist, publisher, and journalist. He was a leader in New York City's small Free Negro, free black community, where ...

, captured Manila, "the greatest Spanish fortress in the western Pacific". The Spanish defeat at Manila was in part due to the neglect of the city's military preparedness and poor military leadership during the battle. This had come about because the former

Governor-General of the Philippines The governor-general of the Philippines (; ; ) was the title of the Executive (government), government executive during the colonial period of the Philippines, first by History of the Philippines (1521–1898), the Spanish in Mexico City and l ...

, Pedro Manuel de Arandia, had died in 1759 and his replacement, Francisco de la Torre, had not arrived due to the British capture of Havana in Spanish Cuba. In the interim, the Spanish Crown appointed the militarily inexperienced Mexican-born Archbishop of Manila Manuel Rojo del Río y Vieyra as a temporary Lieutenant Governor. As a result, many military mistakes were made by the defenders of the city. AndaPostern90503

On 5 October 1762 (4 October local calendar), the night before the fall of the walled city of Manila, the Spanish military persuaded Rojo to summon a

council of war A council of war During the siege, the Spanish lost three officers, two sergeants, 50 troops of the line, and 30

militia A militia ( ) is a military or paramilitary force that comprises civilian members, as opposed to a professional standing army of regular, full-time military personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or se ...

men, besides many wounded. Among the Filipino troops, there were 300 killed and 400 wounded. The British suffered 147 killed and wounded, of whom sixteen were officers. The British fleet expended more than 20,000 cannonballs and 5,000 bombs during their bombardment.

Occupation

Map British troop movement Philippines 1762

Once Manila was captured, "the soldiers turned to pillage." Rojo wrote that the sack actually lasted thirty hours or more, although he laid the blame on the Spanish, Chinese and Filipino denizens of Manila, as much as upon the marauding soldiers. Rojo described the events in his journal. Map of British Conquest of Manila 1762

Drake then demanded a ransom from the Spanish authorities in exchange for agreeing to stop his troops from any further acts of pillage. Rojo agreed to the ransom, which amounted to four million

Spanish dollar The Spanish dollar, also known as the piece of eight (, , , or ), is a silver coin of approximately diameter worth eight Spanish reales. It was minted in the Spanish Empire following a monetary reform in 1497 with content fine silver. It w ...

s. By the time the British left, only a quarter of the ransom was paid, and the matter quietly dropped. On 2 November 1762, Dawsonne Drake, an official of the

, assumed office as the Governor of Manila. He was assisted by a council of four, consisting of John L. Smith, Claud Russel, Henry Brooke and Samuel Johnson. When after several attempts, Drake realised that he was not obtaining as many financial assets as he expected, he formed a war council which he termed the " Chottry Court". Drake imprisoned several Manilans on charges known "only known to himself", according to Captain Thomas Backhouse, who denounced Drake's court as a sham. The British expedition was further rewarded after the capture of the Spanish treasure ship ''Filipina'', carrying American

silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...

from

Acapulco Acapulco de Juárez (), commonly called Acapulco ( , ; ), is a city and Port of Acapulco, major seaport in the Political divisions of Mexico, state of Guerrero on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, south of Mexico City. Located on a deep, semicirc ...

, and in a battle off Cavite the ''Santísima Trinidad'' which carried a cargo of Chinese

porcelain Porcelain (), also called china, is a ceramic material made by heating Industrial mineral, raw materials, generally including kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The greater strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to oth ...

. The cargo of the ''Trinidad'' alone was valued at $1.5 million and the ship at $3 million.

Spanish Philippine resistance

In the meantime, the Royal Audience of Manila had organised a war council and dispatched Oidor Don Simón de Anda y Salazar to the provincial town of

Bulacan Bulacan, officially the Province of Bulacan (; ; ; ), is a Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon Regions of the Philippines, region. Its capital is the city of Malolos. Bulacan was established on ...

to organise continued resistance to the British. The Real Audiencia also appointed Anda as Lieutenant Governor and Visitor-General. That night, Anda took a substantial portion of the treasury and official records with him, departing Fort Santiago through the postern of Our Lady of Solitude, to a boat on the

Pasig River The Pasig River (; ) is a water body in the Philippines that connects Laguna de Bay to Manila Bay. Stretching for , it bisects the Philippine capital of Manila and Metro Manila, its surrounding urban area into northern and southern halves. Its m ...

, and then to Bulacan. He moved headquarters from Bulacan to Bacolor,

Pampanga Pampanga, officially the Province of Pampanga (; ; ), is a province in Central Luzon in the Philippines. Lying on the northern shore of Manila Bay, Pampanga is bordered by Tarlac to the north, Nueva Ecija to the northeast, Bulacan to the east, ...

, which was more secure, and quickly obtained the powerful support of the

Augustinians Augustinians are members of several religious orders that follow the Rule of Saint Augustine, written about 400 A.D. by Augustine of Hippo. There are two distinct types of Augustinians in Catholic religious orders dating back to the 12th–13 ...

. On 8 October 1762, Anda wrote to Rojo informing him that he had assumed the position of Governor and Capitan-General under the statutes of the Council of the Indies which allowed for the devolution of authority from the Governor to the Audiencia in cases of riot or invasion by foreign forces, as was the case presently. Anda, being the highest member of the Audiencia not under British control, assumed all powers and demanded the royal seal. Rojo declined to surrender it and refused to recognise Anda as Governor-General. The surrender agreement between Archbishop Rojo and the British military guaranteed the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

and its episcopal government, secured private property, and granted the citizens of the former Spanish colony the rights of peaceful travel and of trade as British subjects. Under British control, the Philippines would continue to be governed by the Real Audiencia, the expenses of which were to be paid by Spain. Anda refused to recognise any of the agreements signed by Rojo as valid, claiming that the Archbishop had been made to sign them under duress, and therefore, according to the statutes of the Council of the Indies, they were invalid. He also refused to negotiate with the British until he was addressed as the legitimate Governor-General of the Philippines, returning to the British the letters that were not addressed to that effect. All of these initiatives were later approved by Charles III, who rewarded him and other members of the Audiencia, such as José Basco y Vargas, who had fought against the British. Anda eventually raised an army which amounted to over 10,000 combatants, most of them volunteer Filipinos, and although they lacked enough

musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually dis ...

s to go around, they were successful in keeping the British largely confined to Manila and Cavite. On 26 November, Captain Backhouse dispersed Anda's troops from

Pasig Pasig, officially the City of Pasig (), is a highly-urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 803,159 people. It is located along the eastern border of Metro Mani ...

and soon after, established a post, manned by lascars and sepoys so they could ensure their control of Laguna de Bay. Then on 19 January, the following year, the British sent an expedition commanded by Captain Sleigh against

which was reinforced by 400 Chinese civilians after Anda had ordered their executions for aiding the British. "In Bulacan alone 180 Chinese had been murdered in cold blood y the Spanishor had hanged themselves in fear." The British took

Malolos Malolos , officially the City of Malolos (), is a component city and capital of the province of Bulacan, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 261,189 people. It is the capital city of the province of Bulacan as the ...

on 22 January, but failed to advance upon Anda in

and withdrew from there on 7 February. In the spring of 1763, Backhouse undertook another expedition against Anda, advancing as far as

Batangas Batangas, officially the Province of Batangas ( ), is a first class province of the Philippines located in the southwestern part of Luzon in the Calabarzon region. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 2,908,494 people, making ...

. Cornish and the East Indies Squadron departed in early 1763, leaving two frigates behind, and HMS ''Seaford''. On 24 July, news arrived of the cessation of fighting and on 26 August a preliminary draft of the Peace of Paris. The treaty stated that "All conquests not known about at the time of the signing of the treaty were to be returned to the original owners." The impasse continued in Manila however, as the British order to withdraw would not arrive for another six months, and Anda reinforced his blockade of the city. "During the final winter of the British occupation all pretence of cooperation amongst the British leaders was abandoned."

Final months

The Seven Years' War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763. At the time of the signing, the signatories were not aware that Manila had been captured by the British, and consequently, it fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown. After Archbishop Rojo died in January 1764, the British military finally recognised Simón de Anda y Salazar as the legitimate Governor of the Philippines, sending him a letter addressed to the "Real Audiencia Gobernadora y Capitanía General", after which Anda agreed to an armistice on the condition that the British forces withdraw from Manila by March. However, the British finally received their orders to withdraw in early March, and by mid-March the overdue Spanish governor for the Philippines, Brigadier Don Francisco de la Torre, finally arrived. This Spanish governor brought with him orders from London for Brereton and Backhouse to eventually hand over Manila to himself. Drake departed Manila on 29 March 1764, and the Manila Council elected

Alexander Dalrymple Alexander Dalrymple (24 July 1737 – 19 June 1808) was a Scottish geographer, hydrographer, and publisher. He spent the greater part of his career with the British East India Company, starting as a writer in Madras at the age of 16. He s ...

Provisional Deputy Governor. The British ended the occupation by embarking from Manila and Cavite in the first week of April 1764. The 79th Regiment finally arrived in Madras on 25 May 1765.

Aftermath

Diego Silang, who was emboldened by Spanish vulnerability, was promised military assistance by the British if he began a revolt against the Spanish in the

Ilocos Region The Ilocos Region (; ; ), designated as Region I, is an Region of the Philippines, administrative region of the Philippines. Located in the northwestern section of Luzon, it is bordered by the Cordillera Administrative Region to the east, the Ca ...

, but such aid never materialised. Silang was later assassinated by his own friends, and the revolt was aborted after his wife, who had taken over the leadership, was captured and executed by the Spanish along with the remaining rebel forces. Sultan Azim ud-Din I of Sulu, who had signed a treaty of alliance with the British after they had freed him from Fort Santiago in Manila, where he had been imprisoned accused of treason, was also taken with the evacuating forces, in the hope that he could be of help to the aspirations of the East India Company in the

Sultanate of Sulu The Sultanate of Sulu (; ; ) is a Sunni Muslim subnational monarchy in the Philippines, Republic of the Philippines that includes the Sulu Archipelago, coastal areas of Zamboanga City and certain portions of Palawan in today's Philippines. H ...

.. As British forces suffered increasing frustration and the unity of the commanders broke down, a number of Indian

sepoy ''Sepoy'' () is a term related to ''sipahi'', denoting professional Indian infantrymen, traditionally armed with a musket, in the armies of the Mughal Empire and the Maratha. In the 18th century, the French East India Company and its Euro ...

s deserted and settled down in

, Taytay, and

Cainta Cainta, officially the Municipality of Cainta (, ), is a municipality in the Provinces of the Philippines, province of Rizal (province), Rizal, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 376,933 people. It is one of the ...

. The conflict over payment by Spain of the outstanding part of the ransom promised by Rojo in the terms of surrender, and compensation by Britain for the excesses committed by Drake in Manila, continued in Europe for years afterwards. The capture of the Spanish treasure galleons ''Santissima Trinidad'' and the ''Filipina'' made the expedition and the occupation rewarding more to the British government than the East India Company as well as representing a severe loss to Spain. However, the British failure to extend control beyond Manila and Cavite made their occupation's continuation unviable: Captain Backhouse reported to the Secretary of War in London, "''the enemy panishare in full possession of the country''". The British had accepted the written surrender of the Philippines from Archbishop Rojo on 30 October 1762, but the Royal Audience of Manila had already appointed Simón de Anda y Salazar as the new Governor-General as provided for under the statutes of the Council of the Indies, as was pointed out by Anda and retrospectively confirmed by King

Charles III of Spain Charles III (; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain in the years 1759 to 1788. He was also Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I (1731–1735); King of Naples, as Charles VII; and King of Sicily, as Charles III (or V) (1735� ...

, in his re-appointment of both Anda and Basco. It was not the first time that the Audiencia had assumed responsibility for the defence of the Philippines in the absence of a higher authority; in 1646, during the Battles of La Naval de Manila, it temporarily assumed the government and maintained the defence of the Philippines against a Dutch attack. As Francisco Leandro Viana, who was in Manila during the 18-month occupation, explained to King Charles III in 1765, "the English conquest of the Philippines was just an imagined one, as the English never owned any land beyond the range of the cannons in Manila." The old Spanish maps Alexander Dalrymple took from Manila gave the British information about the Pacific, encouraging the quest for .

Citations

References

* * *

Additional sources

* Borschberg, P. (2004), ''Chinese Merchants, Catholic Clerics and Spanish Colonists in British-Occupied Manila, 1762-1764'' in "Maritime China in Transition, 1750-1850", ed. by Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin Keong, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 355–372. * Tracy, Nicholas (1995) ''Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years War''. (University of Exeter Press).