The Bonelli's eagle (''Aquila fasciata'') is a large
bird of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predat ...
. The common name of the bird commemorates the Italian ornithologist and collector
Franco Andrea Bonelli
Franco Andrea Bonelli (10 November 1784 – 18 November 1830) was an Italian ornithologist, entomologist and collector.
Life
Very little is known about the early life of Bonelli: he was born in Cuneo and was interested from an early age in the ...
. Bonelli is credited with gathering the type specimen, most likely from an exploration of
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label= Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, aft ...
.
[Aimassi, G. (2015). ''The original description of Bonelli’s Eagle Aquila fasciata Vieillot (Aves: Accipitridae)''. Zoological Bibliography, 4(1), 1-15.] Some antiquated texts also refer to this species as the crestless hawk-eagle. Like all
eagle
Eagle is the common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. Most of the 68 species of eagle are from Eurasia and Africa. Outside this area, j ...
s, Bonelli's eagle belongs to the family
Accipitridae
The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-s ...
. Its feathered legs marked it as member of the
Aquilinae
The Aquilinae are a subfamily of eagles of the family Accipitridae. The general common name used for members of this subfamily is "booted eagle", although this is also the common name of a member of the subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamau ...
or booted eagle subfamily.
This species breeds from
Southern Europe
Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is essentially marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Alb ...
, Africa on the montane perimeter of the
Sahara Desert
, photo = Sahara real color.jpg
, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
, map =
, map_image =
, location =
, country =
, country1 =
, ...
and across the
Indian Subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
to
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
. On
Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelag ...
, this species may be found as far west as
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
and as far east as
southeastern China
South Central China, South-Central China or Central-South China ( zh, c = 中南, p = Zhōngnán, l = Central-South), is a region of the People's Republic of China defined by State Council that includes the provinces of Guangdong, Hainan, H ...
and
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
. It is usually a resident breeder.
[ The Bonelli's eagle is often found in hilly or mountainous habitats, with rocky walls or crags, from sea level to . Habitats are often open to wooded land and can occur in arid to semi-moist climate.] This eagle, though it can be considered partially opportunistic, is something of a special predator of certain bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...
s and mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur ...
s, especially rabbits
Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' includes the European rabbit sp ...
, galliforms and pigeon
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
s.[Ontiveros, D., Pleguezuelos, J. M., & Caro, J. (2005). ''Prey density, prey detectability and food habits: the case of Bonelli’s eagle and the conservation measures''. Biological Conservation, 123(1), 19-25.] On evidence, when staple prey populations decline or are locally scarce, Bonelli's eagle switch to being an opportunistic predator of a wide variety of birds.[Moleón, M., Sánchez-Zapata, J. A., Gil-Sánchez, J. M., Ballesteros-Duperón, E., Barea-Azcón, J. M., & Virgós, E. (2012). ''Predator–prey relationships in a Mediterranean vertebrate system: Bonelli’s eagles, rabbits and partridges''. Oecologia, 168(3), 679-689.] Despite its persistence over a large range and its continued classification as a least concern species
A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...
by the IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
, the Bonelli's eagle has declined precipitously in various parts of its range, including almost all of its European distribution, and may face potential local extinction
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, refers to a species (or other taxon) of plant or animal that ceases to exist in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinct ...
. The species' declines are due to widespread habitat destruction
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
, electrocution
Electrocution is death or severe injury caused by electric shock from electric current passing through the body. The word is derived from "electro" and "execution", but it is also used for accidental death.
The term "electrocution" was coin ...
from electricity pylon
A transmission tower, also known as an electricity pylon or simply a pylon in British English and as a hydro tower in Canadian English, is a tall structure, usually a steel lattice tower, used to support an overhead power line.
In electrical ...
s as well as persistent persecution
Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these ter ...
.[López-López, P., Sarà, M., & Di Vittorio, M. (2012). ''Living on the edge: assessing the extinction risk of critically endangered Bonelli’s Eagle in Italy''. PLOS ONE, 7(5), e37862.][Sanchez-Alonso, C. & Real J. 2005. '' onelli's Eagle in a state of emergency'. Garcilla, 122: 6-9.]
Taxonomy
The Bonelli's eagle was described in 1822 by French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
Louis Pierre Vieillot (10 May 1748, Yvetot – 24 August 1830, Sotteville-lès-Rouen) was a French ornithologist.
Vieillot is the author of the first scientific descriptions and Linnaean names of a number of birds, including species he collec ...
. The common name Bonelli's eagle is for the collector of the type specimen, Franco Andrea Bonelli
Franco Andrea Bonelli (10 November 1784 – 18 November 1830) was an Italian ornithologist, entomologist and collector.
Life
Very little is known about the early life of Bonelli: he was born in Cuneo and was interested from an early age in the ...
.[ Bonelli's eagle is a member of the ]Aquilinae
The Aquilinae are a subfamily of eagles of the family Accipitridae. The general common name used for members of this subfamily is "booted eagle", although this is also the common name of a member of the subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamau ...
or booted eagles, a monophyletic
In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gr ...
subfamily of the accipitrid family. At least 38 species are currently housed in the subfamily, all with signature well-feathered tarsi.[Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf, A., Griffiths, C., Haring, E., Huddleston, C.J., Kabra, S., Kocum, A., Krosby, M., Kvaloy, K., Mindell, D., Rasmussen, P., Rov, N., Wadleigh, R., Wink, M. & Gjershaug, J.O. (2017). ''Phylogeny and new taxonomy of the Booted Eagles (Accipitriformes: Aquilinae)''. Zootaxa, 4216(4), 301-320.] The African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
(''Aquila spilogaster'') was once lumped with the Bonelli's eagle, with most accounts until about the 1990s listing the species as monotypical.[ However, several morphological differences between the two species, life history discrepancies and their considerably allopatric distribution lead them to being considered separate species. Despite the differences between the Bonelli's eagle and the African hawk-eagle the two species are visibly similar and are still considered ]sister species
In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree.
Definition
The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram:
Taxon A and ...
. However, genetic studies have indicated that they are not closely related relative to other species pairs of the booted eagle subfamily. Recent DNA research resulted in the two species being moved, in 2014, to the genus '' Aquila'' from ''Hieraaetus
The genus ''Hieraaetus'', sometimes known as small eagles or hawk-eagles, denotes a group of smallish eagles usually placed in the accipitrid subfamilies Buteoninae or Aquilinae.
They are medium-sized birds of prey inhabiting Europe, Asia, ...
'', along with another dissimilar species, the Cassin's hawk-eagle
Cassin's hawk-eagle (''Aquila africana'') or Cassin's eagle, is a relatively small eagle in the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs mark it as member of the Aquilinae or booted eagle subfamily. A forest-dependent species, it occurs in primary ...
(''Aquila africana''). More specifically and surprisingly, Bonelli's, African hawk- and Cassin's hawk-eagles were found to be genetically closely related to the golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird ...
(''Aquila chrysaetos'') species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
, which also includes Verreaux's eagle
Verreaux's eagle (''Aquila verreauxii'') is a large, mostly African, bird of prey. It is also called the black eagle, especially in southern Africa, not to be confused with the Indian black eagle (''Ictinaetus malayensis''), which lives far to ...
(''Aquila verreauxii''), Gurney's eagle (''Aquila gurneyi'') and wedge-tailed eagle
The wedge-tailed eagle (''Aquila audax'') is the largest bird of prey in the continent of Australia. It is also found in southern New Guinea to the north and is distributed as far south as the state of Tasmania. Adults of this species have lo ...
(''Aquila audax''). These species are all conspicuously larger than the Bonelli's and African hawk-eagles with differing proportions to their wings, tail and legs (in adaptation to their open country habits) and much darker coloured plumages. Furthermore, the four other traditional members of the genus '' Aquila'' have been revealed to be a separate species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
despite showing superficial similarity to the golden eagle group, i.e. being relatively large and long winged with usually dark coloring. Beyond the nominate subspecies of Bonelli's eagle, which is found throughout its range in Eurasia, a second subspecies dwells in the Lesser Sunda Islands
The Lesser Sunda Islands or nowadays known as Nusa Tenggara Islands ( id, Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara, formerly ) are an archipelago in Maritime Southeast Asia, north of Australia. Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west they make up ...
, ''A. f. renschi''. The latter race is linearly smaller, and compared to other Bonelli's eagles tends to have more strikingly barred remiges and tail, the belly, thighs and crissum more boldly marked. At one time, its restricted and very isolated range have caused authors to suggest ''A. f. renschi'' may be a full species but recent studies have indicated that it is not genetically distinct enough to be considered a separate species. Furthermore, the most recent analysis couldn't rule out early introductions (possibly by ancient falconers) at least playing a part in the species presence in the Lesser Sundas, as some other established wild birds on those islands are certain to have reached there by early human introductions.[Trainor, C. R., Debus, S. J., Olsen, J., Norman, J. A., & Christidis, L. (2013). ''Bonelli’s Eagle Aquila fasciata renschi in the Lesser Sundas, Wallacea: distribution, taxonomic status, likely origins and conservation status''. Forktail, 29, 100-106.]
Description
Size and form
The Bonelli's eagle is a fairly large bird of prey and a medium-sized eagle. When still classified as a member of the genus ''Hieraaetus
The genus ''Hieraaetus'', sometimes known as small eagles or hawk-eagles, denotes a group of smallish eagles usually placed in the accipitrid subfamilies Buteoninae or Aquilinae.
They are medium-sized birds of prey inhabiting Europe, Asia, ...
'', it was considered the largest extant species therein, however, as a member of '' Aquila'' it is amongst the smallest-bodied species.[Naoroji, R., & Schmitt, N. J. (2007). ''Birds of prey of the Indian subcontinent''. Om Books International.][Brown, Leslie and Amadon, Dean (1986) ''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World''. The Wellfleet Press. .] Amongst the currently accepted species of ''Aquila'' eagles, it is of similar size to the tawny eagle
The tawny eagle (''Aquila rapax'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. Its heavily feathered legs mark it as a member of the subfamily Aquilinae, also known as booted eagles.Helbig, A. J., Kocum, ...
(''Aquila rapax'') (albeit with rather shorter wings than the tawny), slightly larger than the African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
and notably larger than the Cassin's hawk-eagle
Cassin's hawk-eagle (''Aquila africana'') or Cassin's eagle, is a relatively small eagle in the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs mark it as member of the Aquilinae or booted eagle subfamily. A forest-dependent species, it occurs in primary ...
.[''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), .] Like most birds of prey, the Bonelli's eagle displays reverse sexual dimorphism as the female is larger than the male to the contrary of most other kinds of birds, in this case she may average about 10% larger overall.[ Total length in fully-grown eagles of the species can vary from . Wingspan in males can vary from while that of the female may vary from .][García, V., Moreno-Opo, R., & Tintó, A. (2013). ''Sex Differentiation of Bonelli's eagle Aquila fasciata in Western Europe using Morphometrics and Plumage Colour Patterns''. Ardeola, 60(2), 261-278.][Clark, W. S. & Schmitt, N.J. (1999). ''A field guide to the raptors of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa''. Oxford University Press, USA.] Prior claims put the weight of this species as , however this probably slightly underrepresents both their size and the sexual dimorphism of this eagle. A large sample of full grown males from western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
were found to average , with a range of (sample size of 91), while 87 females were found to average , with a range of .[ Mature males from western Europe were found to have averaged in total length and in wingspan while mature females averaged in total length and in wingspan.][ Although the linear measurements reportedly increase slightly in average size in the eastern ]Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
n part of the range, body weight was similar or slightly lower at a mean of and for males and females from the Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
, respectively, though the sample size is unknown in this case.[
Bonelli's eagles in general form appear to have a medium-sized head on a fairly long neck, a strong bill, a mid-to-longish tail and exceptionally long and well feathered legs. The combination of its well-proportioned, stout body and elongated legs may lend to descriptions of the species as “athletic” in appearance.][Rasmussen, P. C., & Anderton, J. C. (2005). ''Birds of south Asia: the Ripley guide''. Washington, DC.] This eagle often perches with a very upright carriage, at times openly on a rock, a crag, tree branches or some form of post but also in the foliage of tree cover, especially when actively hunting. When perched, the wing tips tend to fall a bit short of the tail tip.[ Among standard linear measurements, the wing chord of males varies from , with an average in ]western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
of , in tail
The tail is the section at the rear end of certain kinds of animals’ bodies; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammal ...
length from , with an average of , in tarsus length from , with an average of and in total bill length from , with an average of . Meanwhile, females vary in wing chord from , in tail length from , with an average of , in tarsus length from , with an average of , and in total bill length from , with an average of .[Ali, S., & Ripley, S. D. (1983). ''Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan: Together with Those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka''. Oxford University Press.] Two males from the ''A. f. renschi'' race measured in wing chord length and a single female measured .[ The Bonelli's eagle is intermediate in its wing lengths and tail length proportionately between the shorter-tailed and longer-winged eagles of open country and longer-tailed and shorter-winged forest eagles, which allows to vary its hunting between short-burst, agile surprise attacks in trees and ample ground-covering pursuits in the open.][Whistler, H. (1940). ''How do large raptorial birds hunt their prey?'' Ibis, 4: 732-735.][Brown, L. (1977). ''Eagles of the World''. Universe Books.] Its talons and feet are proportionately very large and presumably rather powerful for the eagle's size. In particular the elongated talon on its rear toe (used as a killing apparatus by almost all accipitrids), or hallux claw, is longer than that of the much larger eastern imperial eagle
The eastern imperial eagle (''Aquila heliaca'') is a large bird of prey that breeds in southeastern Europe and extensively through West and Central Asia. Most populations are migratory and winter in northeastern Africa, the Middle East and South ...
(''Aquila heliaca'') and proportionately slightly larger even than its powerful sympatric competitor, the twice as massive golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird ...
.[ Hallux claw lengths in Bonelli's eagles from ]western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
averaged in males and in females averaged , and could farther range up to .[
]
Colouring and identification
Adult are dark brown above, from a cold hue similar to dark chocolate to an umber
Umber is a natural brown earth pigment that contains iron oxide and manganese oxide. In its natural form, it is called raw umber. When calcined, the color becomes warmer and it becomes known as burnt umber.
Its name derives from ''terra d'omb ...
hue depending on their state of molt as well as to some extent individual and regional variances, with pale margins to most feathers. These pale margins are especially broad on the median wing coverts (which thus appear lighter brown overall). Adults also have a variably-sized, irregular white patch on the mantle that can vary from nearly absent (though almost never completely so) to being quite large and extending to the upper back. The adult's tail is grey with obscure darker brown thin bars, with a broad blackish subterminal band and creamy white tip. The adult Bonelli's head is dark brown with a paler, often streaky neck and a white throat. The underside has a cream base colour with variable amounts of sparse blackish-brown streaks or drop shaped markings. The adult female averages darker and more heavily patterned than the adult male, particular on the underside, a case of colour sexual dimorphism otherwise seemingly rare in booted eagles.[ The streaking on this eagle is normally strongest on the breast and upper flanks while the lower belly and crissum are typically either plain or only faintly marked. Juveniles are a lighter medium brown above with variable paler edges, sometimes with a creamy patch on the back (not the mantle as in the adults) and uppertail coverts.][ Generally, juveniles have a rusty-brown head with a darker brown around and behind their eyes. The juvenile eagle's crown is either darkly streaked or, occasionally, plain greyish. The tail of young birds is more clearly barred than the adults while the subterminal band is only negligibly thicker than the other bars. Like adults, the juvenile Bonelli's eagle's tail has a thin white tip. The juvenile is light rufous to warm buff below with minimal black streaks, which are normally confined to chest-sides.][Forsman, D. (1999). ''The raptors of Europe and the Middle East: a handbook of field identification''. London: T & AD Poyser.] By their 2nd summer, the young eagles are still largely the same in colouring but tend to become more patchy below with increased heavy streaking. During the gradual further development through subsequent molts, the immature eagles develop a thicker subterminal band and a paler ground colour below. Among the bare parts, adult's eyes are yellow to yellow-orange while those of the juvenile are hazel-brown. Adult plumage is obtained between the 4th and 5th years. At all ages, the cere and feet are both pale yellow.[
In flight, the Bonelli's eagle is a largish raptor with a well projecting head and broad, long and somewhat square ended wings which are slightly pinched in at body with a little tapering at tips. Feather molts can make the wings look quite variable in shape with some individuals appearing rather longer and narrower winged than others. In flight, the tail appears long and broad but if pinched in can appear surprisingly narrow.][ This species tends to fly with powerful but loose shallow beats. When gliding, they do so often on flat wings with well-spread feathers and the carpals pressed slightly forward but more so when entering a fast glide. This species soars infrequently on flat or slightly raised wings.][Porter, R. F. (1981). ''Flight identification of European raptors''. A&C Black.] At nearly all times of the year, Bonelli's eagles quite often flies in pairs.[ In colouring, the flying adult is dark above with a variable amount of the white marking on the mantle. The tail has faded barring (rarely perceptible) on grey with a big blotchy subterminal band and a white tip above. The markings on the tail look more or less the same when seen both from below and above. Adult Bonelli's eagles have white lesser coverts which along with the greyish tail stand out in contrast against blackish central wing band over the greater and median coverts. Also the flight feathers are faintly and thinly barred light grey-brown with paler bases, which often become paler (to a whitish hue) on the primaries inside blackish tips and leading wing coverts. In flight, juveniles are brown above with slightly darker wing ends and tips to greater coverts and greyer primary windows. Occasionally, juveniles manifest a creamy patch on back and obscure narrow U above barred tail, which even if present are only sometimes visible. Below the juvenile's wing linings are light rufous to warm buff like the body colour. Usually juveniles appear with darker tips to greater coverts forming wing-diagonals (sometimes lacking or confined to carpal area) and a small but distinct area of white on primaries against the blackish tips. Until the 3rd year, the young eagles appear more like a 1st year juvenile than an adult, but begin developing more streaks below and darker greater underwing coverts. By the 4th year, the subadult Bonelli's are increasingly similar to the adult, with an increasing subterminal band, a whiter underbody and fairly prominent underwing-diagonals. However, subadults are often still appear with a mix of paler barred juvenile type feathers and plainer darker adult feathers on the flight feathers.][
Bonelli's eagles are generally unmistakable when shape, flight and plumage are considered in combination.][ In poor light, it is possible to mistake one with a honey buzzard, one mainly in ]Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and another mainly in Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
, as these raptors are extremely polymorphic and can come surprisingly close to approximating the plumage of various more powerful raptors. The wing shape in Bonelli's eagles can at times appear similar to that of honey buzzard but the latter raptor type are usually distinctly slimmer and slighter bodied with a much smaller, slimmer head. In flight, honey buzzards often have notched rather than square ended tails, less emarginated primaries and typically they fly with their wings held more at an angle. The sympatric species of honey buzzard tend to have bolder barring on the tail and underwings, broader dark trailing wing edges and all have no pale mantle patch or darker underwing-diagonals.[ An unlikely source of confusion is the ]northern goshawk
The northern goshawk (; ''Accipiter gentilis'') is a species of medium-large raptor in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus '' Acci ...
(''Accipiter gentilis''), which is usually visibly smaller with much shorter wings, a slightly longer tail, different level flight style and many distinctive plumage characteristics. Distant juvenile Bonelli's could conceivably be mistaken for the long-legged buzzard
The long-legged buzzard (''Buteo rufinus'') is a bird of prey found widely in several parts of Eurasia and in North Africa. This species ranges from Southeastern Europe down to East Africa to the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The long ...
(''Buteo rufinus''), but the buzzard is also smaller and is shorter tailed with prominent dark carpal patches and dark trailing wing edges. Furthermore, the buzzard usually holds its wings in a noticeable dihedral when flying in a soar.[ Another unlikely confusion species is the ]short-toed eagle
The short-toed snake eagle (''Circaetus gallicus''), also known as the short-toed eagle, is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites, buzzards and harriers. The genus ...
(''Circaetus gallicus'') which roughly matches the size of Bonelli's eagles but the short-toed has larger and differently rather wedge-shaped wings with a much less dark overall pattern as well as a shorter tail, a rounder head on a shorter neck and usually a dark rather than light throat.[ Also, goshawks, short-toed eagles and European honey buzzards usually frequent different habitats, more often living in more wooded and lowland habitats.][ Bonelli's eagles may be mistaken for pale morph adult ]booted eagle
The booted eagle (''Hieraaetus pennatus'', also classified as ''Aquila pennata'') is a medium-sized mostly migratory bird of prey with a wide distribution in the Palearctic and southern Asia, wintering in the tropics of Africa and Asia, with a ...
(''Hieraeetus pennatus'') by inexperienced observers but, beyond being a third larger and more than twice as heavy, Bonelli's eagles are moreover distinct in plumage. Overall Bonelli's are much darker and streaker especially compared to the clearly paler flight feathers of booted eagles. Booted eagles are both whiter and more contrasting on the upperwing coverts, have whitish uppertail-coverts and have white on the wing's patagium. More similar in plumage is the juvenile Bonelli's eagle are the rare rufous morph of the booted eagle but the latter can still be told by the booted species’ narrower wings and smaller size.[ In southern part of the ]Red Sea
The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
, vagrants (largely juveniles) may possibly come into range of the closely related and more similar African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
, but the latter is somewhat smaller and comparatively short winged and longer tailed (the total length is similar between the species due to the African's longer tail but the Bonelli's can be visibly larger bodied and rather heavier). In the African species, the adult plumage is a more contrasting, with dark slate gray upperparts, purer white underparts with dark streaking. In African hawk-eagles, juveniles compared to the Bonelli's are darker above with pale wing-windows.[Kemp, A., & Kemp, M. (2006). ''Sasol Birds of Prey; New Edition''. Struik.]
Vocalizations
Bonelli's eagle is largely silent outside of breeding season and is a somewhat infrequent vocalizer even in the context of breeding. Its calls are less well studied than those of the African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
, which although a tropical species, also generally ceases to call outside of the breeding season.[Steyn, P. (1983). ''Birds of prey of southern Africa: Their identification and life histories''. Croom Helm, Beckenham (UK). 1983.] The main call of the Bonelli's eagle is done during the courtship display and, sometimes, also at the nest. Its main call consists of a loud, shrill, somewhat far-carrying scream, ''yuiii-yuiii-gii-gii'' or a drawn-oout ''heeeeii-heeeeii'' with slight regional or even individual variations. Its call is farther carrying than the “puppy-like” one of the golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird ...
and is reminiscent in pitch of that of the red-tailed hawk
The red-tailed hawk (''Buteo jamaicensis'') is a bird of prey that breeds throughout most of North America, from the interior of Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West Indies. It is one of the most common members wit ...
(''Buteo jamaicensis''). The call may be given by both sexes. However, the female Bonelli's eagle calls most intensely when the male is delivering prey unlike the preference for vocalizing in aerial display as the male usually does. Other recorded vocalizations have included a fluted, low-pitched ''klu-klu-klu'' as well as a repeated ''ki ki ki'' in alarm. Also other barking, gurgling and grunting sounds have been reported by researchers at or near the nests.[
]
Range and habitat
Bonelli's eagle have a spotty and sparse worldwide distribution currently. The species is distributed in northwestern Africa
The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
from the Anti-Atlas
The Anti-Atlas ( ar, الأطلس الصغير, shi, Aṭlas Mẓẓiyn), also known as Lesser Atlas or Little Atlas is a mountain range in Morocco, a part of the Atlas Mountains in the northwest of Africa. The Anti-Atlas extends from the Atlanti ...
in Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
northeasterly through the lower parts of the Atlas mountains
The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb in North Africa. It separates the Sahara Desert from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; the name "Atlantic" is derived from the mountain range. It stretches around through ...
in northern Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
and northern Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
(and probably formerly northern Libya
Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Suda ...
).[ Beyond its African breeding range, the ]IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
and others have mapped out a semi-regular wintering range for Bonelli's eagles, in coastal west Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...
from southern Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
down through Western Sahara
Western Sahara ( '; ; ) is a disputed territory on the northwest coast and in the Maghreb region of North and West Africa. About 20% of the territory is controlled by the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), while the ...
, Mauritania
Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...
and northwestern Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
(rarely also east to Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mal ...
), although little more is reportedly known about this population and its origins and altogether the species is considered largely non-migratory. Additionally, the species has been recorded as a vagrant in east Africa in Somalia
Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
as well. In southern Europe, they range patchily through different parts of Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
and Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
into southern France as far north as the department of Drôme
Drôme (; Occitan: ''Droma''; Arpitan: ''Drôma'') is the southernmost department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France. Named after the river Drôme, it had a population of 516,762 as of 2019. .[Cugnasse, J.M., Ravayrol, A., Cramm, P., Goujon, C., Morvan, R., Nozerand, R., Pompidor, J.P. & Ricau, B. (1996). '' arge raptors in Languedoc-Roussillon (SE France): past, present and future'. in Muntaner J; Mayol J. "Biology and conservation of Mediterranean raptors, 1994": 371-379.] Discontinuously, they are now seemingly solely left as breeding bird in Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
on the islands of Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label= Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, aft ...
and Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
.[ In ]southeastern Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (a ...
, an isolated population possibly persists in Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
as well as in northern and southern Macedonia (with the further possibility of spilling over into Kosovo
Kosovo ( sq, Kosova or ; sr-Cyrl, Косово ), officially the Republic of Kosovo ( sq, Republika e Kosovës, links=no; sr, Република Косово, Republika Kosovo, links=no), is a partially recognised state in Southeast Euro ...
) and spottily through different areas of Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
(possibly spilling over the borders in the west in Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
and in the east in Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedo ...
), as well as Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
. Out of Europe, they may be found in western and southern Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, Syria (possibly but most likely extirpated
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, refers to a species (or other taxon) of plant or animal that ceases to exist in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinct ...
), the isle of Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
, Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
, western Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
, northeastern Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
(rarely in northern half of Sinai Peninsula
The Sinai Peninsula, or simply Sinai (now usually ) (, , cop, Ⲥⲓⲛⲁ), is a peninsula in Egypt, and the only part of the country located in Asia. It is between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is ...
) possibly but not certainly in spots in the west and south of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
and elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula to Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
and the United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates (UAE; ar, اَلْإِمَارَات الْعَرَبِيَة الْمُتَحِدَة ), or simply the Emirates ( ar, الِْإمَارَات ), is a country in Western Asia ( The Middle East). It is located at t ...
.[Kassinis, N. (2010). ''Demographics of the Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata population in Cyprus''. Bird Census News, 23(1-2), 21-27.][Shirihai, H., Dovrat, E., Christie, D. A., & Harris, A. (1996). ''The birds of Israel (Vol. 692)''. London: Academic Press.][Vaassen, E. W. ''Status and occurrence of Bonelli’s Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus, in Turkey and Eastern Mediterranean–A Population Estimate''. Raptor Research & Rehabilitation Center Turkey.] Elsewhere in the Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
, their range includes eastern Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and K ...
and west, south and northeastern Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, extending somewhat into Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan ( or ; tk, Türkmenistan / Түркменистан, ) is a country located in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the sout ...
in the Kopet Dag
The Köpet Dag, Kopet Dagh, or Koppeh Dagh ( tk, Köpetdag; fa, کپهداغ), also known as the Turkmen-Khorasan Mountain Range, is a mountain range on the border between Turkmenistan and Iran that extends about along the border southeast o ...
range.[
Further east into Asia, their distribution includes eastern ]Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
and Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
through most of the Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
, where generally it is uncommon but more locally common near Nepal
Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
. On the other hand, they are absent in eastern India and only occurring as a vagrant to Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
.[ In India, they are most regularly occur in certain area such as Chambal ravines, ]Ranthambore National Park
Ranthambore National Park is a national park in Rajasthan, India, with an area of . It is bounded to the north by the Banas River and to the south by the Chambal River. It is named after the historic Ranthambore Fort, which lies within the par ...
, Chir zone of lower Kumaun Himalayas and in winter in the Keoladeo National Park
Keoladeo National Park or Keoladeo Ghana National Park (formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) is a famous avifauna sanctuary in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India, that hosts thousands of birds, especially during the winter season. Over 350 ...
of Bharatpur, Rajasthan
Bharatpur is a city in the Indian state of Rajasthan, south of India's capital, New Delhi, from Rajasthan's capital Jaipur, west of Agra of Uttar Pradesh and from Mathura of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of Bharat ...
.[ From central ]Myanmar
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
they range across into northwestern Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
and northern Laos (though possibly only as a visitor rather than breeding in the latter two). In southern China their resident range includes Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...
, Guangxi and Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
north to Yangtze river
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...
as well as rarely into Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta i ...
.[ Their isolated ]Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
n population ranges is in the Lesser Sunda Islands
The Lesser Sunda Islands or nowadays known as Nusa Tenggara Islands ( id, Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara, formerly ) are an archipelago in Maritime Southeast Asia, north of Australia. Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west they make up ...
, including at least Sumbawa
Sumbawa is an Indonesian island, located in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain, with Lombok to the west, Flores to the east, and Sumba further to the southeast. Along with Lombok, it forms the province of West Nusa Tenggara, but th ...
, Timor
Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is divided between the sovereign states of East Timor on the eastern part and Indonesia on the western part. The Indonesian part, also ...
, Wetar
Wetar is a tropical island which belongs to the Indonesian province of Maluku and is the largest island of the Maluku Barat Daya Islands (literally ''Southwest Islands'') of the Maluku Islands. It lies east of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which i ...
, Luang and Flores, however records show they've turned up on as many as 20 islands in the Lesser Sundas.[
Bonelli's eagles are mostly residential throughout their range but juvenile can disperse up to over several hundred kilometers. Sometimes, they are recorded at migration sites and at spots where not known to breed in winter. Wanderings include around north of their regular range in France near the coast of ]English Channel
The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...
, far from their normal haunts in Regensburg, Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
and, probably both from the Italian island populations, to northwestern Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
and Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, an ...
.[ From their ]Iberian peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
range presumably, vagrants have been reported in the Canary islands. Beyond Sri Lanka, other areas the species has been known to vagrate (or perhaps rarely winter) in Asia have included Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
, the Korean peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
and Cochinchina
Cochinchina or Cochin-China (, ; vi, Đàng Trong (17th century - 18th century, Việt Nam (1802-1831), Đại Nam (1831-1862), Nam Kỳ (1862-1945); km, កូសាំងស៊ីន, Kosăngsin; french: Cochinchine; ) is a historical exony ...
in Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
, as well as a record in winter 1996 on the isle of Yamdena
Yamdena (spelt Jamdena during the Dutch colonial period) is the largest of the Tanimbar Islands in the Maluku Province of Indonesia. Saumlaki is the chief town, located on the south end of the island.
The island has a range of forested hills al ...
, the latter presumably from the Lesser Sunda population.[
]
Habitat
Bonelli's eagles across their wide range tend to dwell in similar habitat types. They are mostly distributed in lands hugging large bodies of water, largely the Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ...
and northern Indian ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by t ...
. Also, to a lesser extent, they may live near the coast of the Atlantic
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe an ...
and the Pacific
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the contine ...
as well as near the Caspian sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia ...
inland. Despite often being near seas and oceans they mostly occur in fairly arid habitats and in quite sunny areas. In some parts of Asia though semi-moist habitats may be resided in. Bonelli's eagles prefer rocky areas including lower mountain
A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually highe ...
s and foothills
Foothills or piedmont are geographically defined as gradual increases in elevation at the base of a mountain range, higher hill range or an upland area. They are a transition zone between plains and low relief hills and the adjacent topogr ...
with plentiful cliff
In geography and geology, a cliff is an area of rock which has a general angle defined by the vertical, or nearly vertical. Cliffs are formed by the processes of weathering and erosion, with the effect of gravity. Cliffs are common on co ...
s, as well as steep sided river valleys and gorges. This species is very skilled at hunting in craggy, irregular rocky terrain.[Baccetti, N. & Spagnesi, M. (1987). ''Rapaci Mediterranei III: Atti del Quarto Colloquio Internazionale sui Rapaci Mediterranei''. Supplemento alle Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina, 12: 1-316.] Usually, extensive garrigue
Garrigue or garigue ( ), also known as phrygana ( el, φρύγανα , n. pl.), is a type of low scrubland ecoregion and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome.
It is found on limestone soils in southern ...
-type habitat such as low bushes or more substantial vegetation such as scattered trees are a common feature of residential ranges but also at times even denser woodland
A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with trees, or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the ''plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade (se ...
s. Such scrubby areas are key since they generally hold prey concentration in Mediterranean habitats.[Carrascal, L. M., & Seoane, J. (2009). ''Factors affecting large-scale distribution of the Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata in Spain''. Ecological Research, 24(3), 565-573.][Real, J., Bosch, R., Tintó, A., & Hernández‐Matías, A. (2016). ''Identifying key habitats for the conservation of Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciata using radiotracking''. Ibis, 158(3), 556-568.] However, excessive ground cover may limit hunting success so scrub is avoided when it becomes too dense.[Martínez-Miranzo, B., Banda, E. I., & Aguirre, J. I. (2016). ''Multiscale analysis of habitat selection by Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata) in NE Spain''. European journal of wildlife research, 62(6), 673-679.] In the Mediterranean region, forests visited by Bonelli's eagles are usually either pine forests or sclerophyll forests. Deep forests are generally avoided, however.[Di Vittorio, M., Sarà, M., & López-López, P. (2012). ''Habitat preferences of Bonelli's Eagles Aquila fasciata in Sicily''. Bird Study, 59(2), 207-217.] Although Carrascal & Seoane (2009) claimed that agricultural areas are generally avoided per their analysis in Spain, Martinez-Miranzo et al. (2016) indicated that the species was showing a growing preference for agricultural arable land
Arable land (from the la, arabilis, "able to be ploughed") is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops.''Oxford English Dictionary'', "arable, ''adj''. and ''n.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2013. Alternatively, for th ...
and other human-modified habitats, probably as prey selection has shifted more heavily to pigeons
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
out of necessity. A similar growing preference for arables was also detected in Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
as well.[ However, ]urban areas
An urban area, built-up area or urban agglomeration is a human settlement with a high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, ...
are generally strongly avoided both as breeding and as foraging areas by this species.[ Bonelli's eagles may additionally range into timbered plains or even virtually barren slopes or semi-desert, especially in areas such as ]Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
and India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
where moister valley
A valley is an elongated low area often running between hills or mountains, which will typically contain a river or stream running from one end to the other. Most valleys are formed by erosion of the land surface by rivers or streams ove ...
s intersect with deserts.[Bahat, O. 1989. ''Aspects in the ecology and biodynamics of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri) in the arid regions of Israel''. Master's Thesis. Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, Israel.] Juveniles may take up temporary residence over dry cultivation, small wetland
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The p ...
areas, coast
The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in ...
lines or surprisingly deep woodlands.[ In winter, these eagles may occur at times at lower elevation levels and more open habitats in semi-deserts and plains, where they can appear surprisingly at home, but often prefer wetter habitats such as large ]river
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of w ...
mouths, marsh
A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p Marshes can often be found a ...
lands and lake
A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much large ...
s, especially where these fall in existing home range, as prey is more likely to be concentrated in such areas.[ In some areas such as southeastern Asia, some of the Indian subcontinent and in the Lesser Sundas, the Bonelli's eagles may reside around ]tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equa ...
that is much wetter and more humid than their typical habitats, and in such areas are attracted to more sparse and rocky areas such as slopes and cliffs as well as alternately open mosaics and glades.[ Usually Bonelli's eagles live at an elevation of or lower in Europe, to in their African Atlas mountain homes and to as high an elevation in Asia and even in residence in ]Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...
. The main elevation where the species resides in the Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...
falls between .[
]
Behaviour and dietary ecology
This species is very aerial, often given to soaring and circling over its home range. Like most raptorial birds, it mainly lives solitarily or in a breeding pair.[ The Bonelli's eagle is a powerful predator, and has been described as rather “bold and rapacious”.][ Its primary hunting methods recall those of a powerful '']Accipiter
''Accipiter'' is a genus of birds of prey in the family Accipitridae. With 51 recognized species it is the most diverse genus in its family. Most species are called goshawks or sparrowhawks, although almost all New World species (excepting th ...
'' such as a goshawk
Goshawk may refer to several species of birds of prey, mainly in the genus ''Accipiter'':
* Northern goshawk, ''Accipiter gentilis'', often referred to simply as the goshawk, since it is the only goshawk found in much of its range (in Europe and N ...
. Most commonly, this eagle still-hunts, often either utilizing a concealed tree perch or a lofty spot in irregular rocky terrain to watch for prey activity. Upon spotting its quarry, it often dashes out rapidly to take birds as they take off or a mammal as it runs for cover, at times making lengthy tail-chase that may continue between trees or into tree stands or bushes. Not infrequently as a latter part of a tail chase, these eagles (again reminiscent of a goshawk) will occasionally walk on the ground to obtain their prey.[Marmasse, A. & Vilatte, M. (1995). '' rey capture and aerial acrobatics of Bonelli's Eagle Hieraaetus fasicatus'. Faune de Provence, 16: 123.] Bonelli's eagles also hunt in a quartering flying style relatively close to the ground (in a fashion reminiscent of a harrier) or patrols hillsides for prey activity.[ Bonelli's eagles will also occasionally stoop from a soaring height onto prey. Mostly, this predator takes birds from on or near the ground but some snatched them from bushes and, seldom, water. It has been known to have sufficient agility to catch some birds from active flight.][ In one case, a Bonelli's eagle was observed to fly below a ]jackdaw
Jackdaws are two species of bird in the genus ''Coloeus'' closely related to, but generally smaller than, the crows and ravens (''Corvus''). ''Coloeus'' is sometimes treated as a subgenus of ''Corvus'', including by the IUCN.Madge & Burn (1994) ...
and swoop upwards to grab it from below.[ Tandem hunting by a lifelong pair is quite common, almost exceptionally so in this species. One eagle tends to fly directly above the other, with several cases of one eagle scattering a bird flock for the other eagle to quickly single out, in a similar style to tandem-hunting ]laggar falcon
The laggar falcon (''Falco jugger''), also known as the lugger falcon or jugger (from Hindi जग्गर — jaggar, “falcon”) is a mid-sized bird of prey which occurs in the Indian subcontinent from extreme southeastern Iran, southeaste ...
s (''Falco jugger''). However, per Spanish studies, apparently tandem hunting neither improved hunting success nor were the eagles able to capture larger prey (in fact the estimated prey size by pairs was slightly lower than that taken by each mate hunting by itself) while hunting in tandem. It was hypothesized that tandem hunting is more important to the socio-sexual relations of the pair rather than capture of a significant amount of prey.[Watve, M.G., Sant, N.R. & Joshi, V. (1995). ''Why Bonelli's Eagles hunt in pair: an assessment of individual and paired hunting successes''. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 91: 355-359.][Martínez, J. E., Zuberogoitia, I., Gómez, G., Escarabajal, J. M., Cerezo, E., Jiménez-Franco, M. V., & Calvo, J. F. (2014). ''Attack success in Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciata''. Ornis Fennica, 91(2), 67.] Compared to most other booted eagles, Bonelli's eagle takes a great majority of its prey alive and seldom comes to carrion or pirates foods from other raptors.[ However, it will readily come to previously injured prey, especially ]water bird
A water bird, alternatively waterbird or aquatic bird, is a bird that lives on or around water. In some definitions, the term ''water bird'' is especially applied to birds in freshwater ecosystems, although others make no distinction from seabi ...
s shot by duck hunters, and will readily take young animals across most prey classes.[ Also, in ]Keoladeo National Park
Keoladeo National Park or Keoladeo Ghana National Park (formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) is a famous avifauna sanctuary in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India, that hosts thousands of birds, especially during the winter season. Over 350 ...
, India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, Bonelli's eagles were observed to habitually follow harriers, spotted eagles and other '' Aquila'' eagles in order to capture water bird
A water bird, alternatively waterbird or aquatic bird, is a bird that lives on or around water. In some definitions, the term ''water bird'' is especially applied to birds in freshwater ecosystems, although others make no distinction from seabi ...
s incidentally flushed during their flybys.[Prakash, V. (1988). ''The general ecology of raptors in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur'' (Doctoral dissertation, Ph. D. thesis. Bombay University, Mumbai, India).]
Overall, Bonelli's eagles take a fairly wide variety of prey. Across its wide range, their prey spectrum has been known to include perhaps up to nearly 200 prey species. Dietary studies have primarily been conducted in western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, though some study has gone into their food habits elsewhere (being well known in Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
and, less so, India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
).[Iezekiel, S., Bakaloudis, D. E., & Vlachos, C. G. (2004). ''The diet of the Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus in Cyprus''. In: Raptors worldwide: proceedings of the VI world conference on birds of prey and owls. Berlin: World Working Group on Birds of Prey/MME (pp. 581-87).] Brown & Amadon (1986) considered the Bonelli's eagles prey size range as nearly as extensive as the most massive booted eagles, such as the golden eagle and the martial eagle (''Polemaetus bellicosus'') (but mainly may have been describing the African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
that was lumped at the time).[ Bonelli's eagles mainly hunts ]bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...
s and mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur ...
s, taking reptiles and other prey types on a more local and sporadic basis. In western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, it is considered something of a specialist predator on rabbits
Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' includes the European rabbit sp ...
and partridges, though other birds such as pigeon
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
s, gulls
Gulls, or colloquially seagulls, are seabirds of the family Laridae in the suborder Lari (bird), Lari. They are most closely related to the terns and Skimmer (bird), skimmers and only distantly related to auks, and even more distantly to waders ...
and corvid
Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In colloquial English, they are known as the crow family or corvids. Currently, ...
s sometimes are taken as much or more so depending on local prey population trends.[ Pellet analysis is considered the most reliable way to get a complete picture of Bonelli's eagle dietary habits. Despite its predaceous power, typically the average size of prey taken are within average range for a raptorial bird and it may take smaller prey on average than its mildly smaller cousin, the ]African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
.[ In ]Sierra Morena
The Sierra Morena is one of the main systems of mountain ranges in Spain. It stretches for 450 kilometres from east to west across the south of the Iberian Peninsula, forming the southern border of the ''Meseta Central'' plateau and providi ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, the mean size of prey taken was estimated at , while in Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
the mean prey size was estimated at .[Jordano, P. (1981). ''Relaciones interespecificas y coexistencia entre el aguila real (Aquila chrysaetos) y el aguila perdicera (Hieraaetus fasciatus) en Sierra Morena central''. Ardeola, 28: 67-88.][Alivizatos, H. & Bourdakis, S. ''Diet and breeding success of the Bonelli's Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) in Greece: preliminary data''. International Hawkwatcher, 5: 3-6.] A subsequent study in Spain, however, posited the mean prey size as lower than in the past, stating that prey taken by males averaged an estimated and by females at , probably due to increased importance of pigeon
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
s and reduced numbers of rabbits.[ Thus, on average, prey sizes average about 20-45% of the Bonelli's eagles own weight.][MARTI, C. D., & KORPIMÁKI, E. (2012). ''TROPHIC STRUCTURE OF RAPTOR COMMUNITIES: A THREE-CONTINENT''. Current Ornithology, 10, 47.] Furthermore, the latter Spanish study found hunting success of Bonelli's eagles to average around 28.5%, a slightly higher hunting success rate than golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird ...
s (20%) or lesser spotted eagle
The lesser spotted eagle (''Clanga pomarina'') is a large Eastern European bird of prey. Like all typical eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. The typical eagles are often united with the buteos, sea eagles, and other more heavy-set Acc ...
s (''Clanga pomarina'') (24%) but slightly lower than greater spotted eagle
The greater spotted eagle (''Clanga clanga''), occasionally called the spotted eagle, is a large bird of prey. Like all typical eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs indicate it is a member of the subfamily Aquil ...
s (''Clanga clanga'') (34%).[
]
Rabbits and other lagomorphs
More than any other, the European rabbit
The European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') or coney is a species of rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula (including Spain, Portugal, and southwestern France), western France, and the northern Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa. It has b ...
(''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') is considered the most important prey species for most European Bonelli's eagles.[ In the largest European studies, the rabbit is usually the leading prey species: such as in ]Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
where rabbits comprised 22.54% of 2254 prey items (and 33.3% of the prey biomass) and in Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
where rabbits made up 16.4% of 2742 prey items.[Mayor, J.R. (2014). ''Study of the Feeding Ecology of Bonelli's Eagle: Effects of Diet on Body Condition, Vital Rates and Demography''. Universitat de Barcelona (Doctoral dissertation)][Morvan, R. (2010). ''Aigle de Bonelli (Hieraaetus fasciatus) : présentation de l’espèce et des causes de son déclin''. Rev. sci. Bourgogne-Nature, 11: 228-235.] In the third largest western European study, rabbits were secondary in number to pigeons (at 18.4% of 1641 prey items) but were still the largest contributors of biomass, at 33.2%.[Palma, L., Beja, P., Pais, M., & Cancela Da Fonseca, L. (2006). ''Why do raptors take domestic prey? The case of Bonelli's eagles and pigeons''. Journal of applied ecology, 43(6), 1075-1086.] Even where non-native, such as the Aegean islands of Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
, the European rabbit dominated the foods of this eagle, comprising 40.8% by number and 46.6% by biomass of the foods.[ In Spain, it was found that about three-quarters of studied floating juvenile Bonelli's eagles were hunting rabbits almost exclusively, apparently as they were easier to capture despite their larger size than bird prey.][Caro, J., Ontiveros, D., & Pleguezuelos, J. M. (2011). ''The feeding ecology of Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata) floaters in southern Spain: implications for conservation''. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 57(4), 729-736.] Research determines that Bonelli's eagle are often attracted to scrub areas during hunting forays to catch sight of rabbits foraying out of vegetative cover. Since young juvenile and yearling rabbits are forced out to more open feeding spots by dominant adult rabbits, they are disproportionately often selected by Bonelli's eagles and other avian predators. Rabbits become more commonly caught during the summer when the young rabbits tend to disperse.[Palomares, F., & Delibes, M. (1997). ''Predation upon European rabbits and their use of open and closed patches in Mediterranean habitats''. Oikos, 407-410.] On the contrary, 86.2% of the rabbits taken in southwest Portugal were reportedly adults.[ Most rabbits caught by Bonelli's eagle were estimated to weigh between (from the size of a kit to a smallish adult) per Spanish studies, with an estimated average weight in Spain of .][ A study in southeastern Spain estimated that the region's Bonelli's eagles claim about 337 rabbits during the breeding season and 237 rabbits during non-breeding during the course of a year, so despite their heavy predation barely make a dent on the overall population of rabbits (effecting less than 2.5% of the population at peak).][ The native western European population of wild rabbit has been heavily depleted by ]myxomatosis
Myxomatosis is a disease caused by ''Myxoma virus'', a poxvirus in the genus '' Leporipoxvirus''. The natural hosts are tapeti (''Sylvilagus brasiliensis'') in South and Central America, and brush rabbits (''Sylvilagus bachmani'') in North A ...
and rabbit haemorrhagic disease
Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), also known as viral hemorrhagic disease (VHD), is a highly infectious and lethal form of viral hepatitis that affects European rabbits. Some viral strains also affect hares and cottontail rabbits. Mortality rate ...
, having been reduced by an estimated 50-70%. While the overall numbers seemingly taken by them reduced by as much as a third between 1968 and 2009, on evidence Bonelli's eagle still sought them out and hunted rabbits preferentially even during the non-breeding season when their numbers dip to their lowest.[Moleón, M. & Sánchez-Zapata, J.A. (2007). ''Non breeding feeding ecology of territorial Bonelli´s eagles Hieraaetus fasciatus in the Iberian Peninsula''. Ardeola, 54(1), 135-143.] In additional, significant numbers of other lagomorph
The lagomorphs are the members of the taxonomic order Lagomorpha, of which there are two living families: the Leporidae (hares and rabbits) and the Ochotonidae (pikas). The name of the order is derived from the Ancient Greek ''lagos'' (λαγ� ...
s may be taken, extending to occasional Granada hare
The Granada hare (''Lepus granatensis''), also known as the Iberian hare, is a hare species that can be found on the Iberian Peninsula and on the island of Majorca.
Subspecies
Three subspecies of the Granada hare are known, which vary in colour ...
s (''Lepus granatensis'') as well as accounts of Bonelli's eagles hunting European hare
The European hare (''Lepus europaeus''), also known as the brown hare, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly ...
s (''Lepus europaeus'') in the Greek isles and Indian hare
The Indian hare (''Lepus nigricollis''), also known as the black-naped hare, is a common species of hare native to the Indian subcontinent, and Java.
Introductions
It has been introduced to Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Andaman Islands, Irian Jay ...
s (''Lepus nigricollis'') in the lower Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...
.[Handrinos, G., & Akriotis, T. (1997). ''The birds of Greece''. Christopher Helm.][Miranzo, B.M. (2017). ''Ecología espacial del águila de Bonelli ("Aquila fasciata") en Aragón''. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología (Doctoral thesis).]
Gamebirds and pigeons
The main secondary wild prey species associated with Bonelli's eagles is the red-legged partridge (''Alectoris rufa''). Although at times capable of evading the attentions of eagles, this partridge occurs in conveys in the same mixed scrub that hold rabbits and is taken whenever the eagles are lucky enough to have the element of surprise. About 383 red-legged partridges were estimated to be hunted annually in one study area of southwestern Spain.[ In the large Spanish study of ]Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, French study of Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
and in southwest Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
, the red-legged partridge made up 9.57%, 11.6% and 17.2% of the diet by number, respectively.[ More so than any other prey type outside of western Europe, ]gamebird
Galliformes is an order of heavy-bodied ground-feeding birds that includes turkeys, chickens, quail, and other landfowl. Gallinaceous birds, as they are called, are important in their ecosystems as seed dispersers and predators, and are often ...
s such as partridges seem to be globally the most favored prey type where available for Bonelli's eagle. In Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, a review of 528 prey items, revealed that the chukar (''Alectoris chukar'') was the main prey at 31.4% of the diet.[ More than a dozen gamebirds have been detected in the foods of this species from ]Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
with at least a half dozen genera turning up in a few reviews of their ecology in India.[Pande, S., Yosef, R., Morelli, F., Pawar, R., & Mone, R. (2018). ''Diet and habitat affinities in six raptor species in India''. Avian Research, 9(1), 36.] At times, even adult Indian peafowl
The Indian peafowl (''Pavo cristatus''), also known as the common peafowl, and blue peafowl, is a peafowl species native to the Indian subcontinent. It has been introduced to many other countries. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and ...
(''Pavo cristatus''), potentially weighing up to , have been dispatched by this species.[ In the ]Lesser Sunda Islands
The Lesser Sunda Islands or nowadays known as Nusa Tenggara Islands ( id, Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara, formerly ) are an archipelago in Maritime Southeast Asia, north of Australia. Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west they make up ...
, most eye-witness accounts of their hunting habits indicate that wild (or, on some islands, introduced) green junglefowl
The green junglefowl (''Gallus varius''), also known as Javan junglefowl, forktail or green Javanese junglefowl, is the most distantly related and the first to diverge at least 4 million years ago among the four species of the junglefowl. ...
(''Gallus varius'') as well as village chickens (''Gallus gallus'') are likely to be the most important prey.[ Beyond gamebirds, ]pigeon
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
s are the other most significant avian prey type. The two larger European pigeons, the oft feral or domestic rock pigeon
The rock dove, rock pigeon, or common pigeon ( also ; ''Columba livia'') is a member of the bird family Columbidae (doves and pigeons). In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon".
The domestic pigeon (''Columba livia domes ...
(''Columba livia'') and the common wood pigeon
The common wood pigeon or common woodpigeon (''Columba palumbus''), also known as simply wood pigeon, wood-pigeon or woodpigeon, is a large species in the dove and pigeon family (Columbidae), native to the western Palearctic. It belongs to the g ...
(''Columba palumbus''), are almost solely favored among this group where encountered. In southwest Portugal, pigeons have surpassed rabbits (due to their disease-based decline) to become the most important prey. Here, attempts were made to parse the proportion of feral pigeon
Feral pigeons (''Columba livia domestica'' or ''Columba livia forma urbana''), also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons,Nagy, Kelsi, and Johnson, Phillip David. ''Trash animals: how we live with natures filthy, feral, invasive, an ...
s that were taken against the number of domestic pigeon
The domestic pigeon (''Columba livia domestica'' or ''Columba livia'' ''forma'' ''domestica'') is a pigeon subspecies that was derived from the rock dove (also called the rock pigeon). The rock pigeon is the world's oldest domesticated bird. M ...
s (since pigeon fanciers frequently persecute this eagle due its allegedly heavily predation of domestic birds). Of the 1497 prey items overall, feral pigeons were found to comprise 30.1% of the food by number and 26% of the biomass while the domestic types made up only 9.7% of the diet by number and 7.2% of the biomass.[ In ]Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, unidentified pigeons made up 17.8% of the foods and 17.4% of the biomass while identified common wood pigeons made up a further 6.24% of the number and 6.54% of the biomass, while a smaller study from the same area boosted wood pigeons to make up 11.3% of 524 prey items.[Resano, J., Hernández-Matías, A., Real, J., & Parés, F. (2011). ''Using stable isotopes to determine dietary patterns in Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) nestlings''. Journal of Raptor Research, 45(4), 342-353.] In Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, rock and common wood pigeons collectively made up 27.7% of the diet.[
]
Other birds
Other medium-sized birds are taken widely by Bonelli's eagles. A surprisingly popular dietary choice in western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
was for yellow-legged gull
The yellow-legged gull (''Larus michahellis'') is a large gull found in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, which has only recently achieved wide recognition as a distinct species. It was formerly treated as a subspecies of either the Cas ...
s (''Larus michahellis''), weighing an estimated . In the 2724 prey items in Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
, this gull was second only to the rabbit in number, comprising 14.6% of the diet.[ Other ]gull
Gulls, or colloquially seagulls, are seabirds of the family Laridae in the suborder Lari. They are most closely related to the terns and skimmers and only distantly related to auks, and even more distantly to waders. Until the 21st century ...
s are readily taken by Bonelli's eagles as well as wide diversity of other water bird
A water bird, alternatively waterbird or aquatic bird, is a bird that lives on or around water. In some definitions, the term ''water bird'' is especially applied to birds in freshwater ecosystems, although others make no distinction from seabi ...
s, including rails
Rail or rails may refer to:
Rail transport
*Rail transport and related matters
*Rail (rail transport) or railway lines, the running surface of a railway
Arts and media Film
* ''Rails'' (film), a 1929 Italian film by Mario Camerini
* ''Rail'' ( ...
, stone curlews, lapwings
Lapwings (subfamily Vanellinae) are any of various ground-nesting birds (family Charadriidae) akin to plovers and dotterels. They range from in length, and are noted for their slow, irregular wingbeats in flight and a shrill, wailing cry. A gro ...
, sandpiper
Sandpipers are a large family, Scolopacidae, of waders. They include many species called sandpipers, as well as those called by names such as curlew and snipe. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil ...
s, tubenoses, cormorants and herons.[Resano, J., Bayle, P., Real, J., Hernández, A., Vincent-Martin, N. & Ravayrol, A. (2012). ''Analyse du régime alimentaire de l’Aigle de Bonelli Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot, 1822) pendant la saison de reproduction 2010 en France''. Université de Barcelone - Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, 1: 95-101.] Water birds taken Bonelli's eagles may vary in size from wading birds as small as common sandpiper (''Acitis hypoleucos'') and diving birds as small as little grebe
The little grebe (''Tachybaptus ruficollis''), also known as dabchick, is a member of the grebe family of water birds. The genus name is from Ancient Greek ''takhus'' "fast" and ''bapto'' "to sink under". The specific ''ruficollis'' is from Lati ...
s (''Tachybaptus ruficollis'') to those as large as adults of painted stork
The painted stork (''Mycteria leucocephala'') is a large wader in the stork family. It is found in the wetlands of the plains of tropical Asia south of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Southeast Asia. Their distinctiv ...
s (''Ciconia leucocephala''), greylag goose
The greylag goose or graylag goose (''Anser anser'') is a species of large goose in the waterfowl family Anatidae and the type species of the genus ''Anser''. It has mottled and barred grey and white plumage and an orange beak and pink legs. A ...
(''Anser anser'') (though reportedly taken while injured by buckshot in India), and common crane
The common crane (''Grus grus''), also known as the Eurasian crane, is a bird of the family Gruidae, the cranes. A medium-sized species, it is the only crane commonly found in Europe besides the demoiselle crane (''Grus virgo'') and the Siberian ...
(''Grus grus'').[Beton, D., Snape, R., & Saydam, B. (2013). ''Status and ecology of the Bonelli's Eagle, Aquila fasciatus, in the Pentadaktylos Mountain Range, Cyprus (Aves: Falconiformes)''. Zoology in the Middle East, 59(2), 123-130.] Corvid
Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In colloquial English, they are known as the crow family or corvids. Currently, ...
s, of a dozen or more species and up to the size of the common raven
The common raven (''Corvus corax'') is a large all-black passerine bird. It is the most widely distributed of all corvids, found across the Northern Hemisphere. It is a raven known by many names at the subspecies level; there are at least ...
(''Corvus corax''), are taken in considerable numbers in differing parts of the range.[ In ]Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
, Eurasian magpie (''Pica pica'') and western jackdaw
The western jackdaw (''Coloeus monedula''), also known as the Eurasian jackdaw, the European jackdaw, or simply the jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family. Found across Europe, western Asia and North Africa; it is mostly resident, a ...
(''Corvus monedula'') made up 10.17% and 9.95% of the diet respectively.[ In Portugal, Eurasian jay comprised 7.5% by number but only 2.7% of the biomass.][ Corvids were the leading prey for Bonelli's eagles in ]Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
, with the Eurasian magpie comprising 12.3% of the diet (though largely young were reportedly taken) and carrion crow
The carrion crow (''Corvus corone'') is a passerine bird of the family Corvidae and the genus ''Corvus'' which is native to western Europe and the eastern Palearctic.
Taxonomy and systematics
The carrion crow was one of the many species or ...
s (''Corvus corone'') making up a further 10.76%.[Abuladze, A. (2013). ''Birds of prey of Georgia''. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia Issue VI. Tbilisi.] In the Aegeans of Greece, carrion crows comprised 14.1% of the prey by number and 8.8% of the biomass, while south of Turkey in Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, western jackdaw comprised 7.6% of the foods.[ Other assorted avian prey groups taken in usually smaller numbers include ]cuckoo
Cuckoos are birds in the Cuculidae family, the sole taxon in the order Cuculiformes . The cuckoo family includes the common or European cuckoo, roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis. The coucals and anis are sometimes separ ...
s, swift
Swift or SWIFT most commonly refers to:
* SWIFT, an international organization facilitating transactions between banks
** SWIFT code
* Swift (programming language)
* Swift (bird), a family of birds
It may also refer to:
Organizations
* SWIFT, ...
s, bustard
Bustards, including floricans and korhaans, are large, terrestrial birds living mainly in dry grassland areas and on the steppes of the Old World. They range in length from . They make up the family Otididae (, formerly known as Otidae). Bustar ...
s, nightjars
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal or crepuscular birds in the family Caprimulgidae and order Caprimulgiformes, characterised by long wings, short legs, and very short bills. They are sometimes called goatsuckers, due to the ancient folk ...
, bee-eaters, rollers, hoopoes
Hoopoes () are colourful birds found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, notable for their distinctive "crown" of feathers. Three living and one extinct species are recognized, though for many years all of the extant species were lumped as a single ...
. woodpecker
Woodpeckers are part of the bird family Picidae, which also includes the piculets, wrynecks, and sapsuckers. Members of this family are found worldwide, except for Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, and the extreme polar regions. ...
s and parrot
Parrots, also known as psittacines (), are birds of the roughly 398 species in 92 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes (), found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoide ...
s.[ Among passerines, which are usually quite secondary besides corvids, they've been known to hunt various ]lark
Larks are passerine birds of the family Alaudidae. Larks have a cosmopolitan distribution with the largest number of species occurring in Africa. Only a single species, the horned lark, occurs in North America, and only Horsfield's bush lark oc ...
s (up to nearly 11% of the diet in Georgia), shrikes, swallow
The swallows, martins, and saw-wings, or Hirundinidae, are a family of passerine songbirds found around the world on all continents, including occasionally in Antarctica. Highly adapted to aerial feeding, they have a distinctive appearance. The ...
s, accentors, Old World flycatcher
The Old World flycatchers are a large family, the Muscicapidae, of small passerine birds restricted to the Old World (Europe, Africa and Asia), with the exception of several vagrants and two species, Bluethroat (''Luscinia svecica)'' and Northe ...
s (at least 10 different species), thrushes, pipits
The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, ''Anthus'', of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws, the pipits make up the family Motacillidae. The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, ...
, starling
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The Sturnidae are named for the genus '' Sturnus'', which in turn comes from the Latin word for starling, ''sturnus''. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, ...
s, buntings, finch
The true finches are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Fringillidae. Finches have stout conical bills adapted for eating seeds and nuts and often have colourful plumage. They occupy a great range of habitats where they are usua ...
es and Old world sparrow
Old World sparrows are a group of small passerine birds forming the family Passeridae. They are also known as true sparrows, a name also used for a particular genus of the family, ''Passer''. They are distinct from both the New World sparrows, i ...
s.[Gil-Sánchez, J. M. (1998). ''Selección de presa por el Águila-azor Perdicera (Hieraaetus fasciatus) durante el periodo de nidificación en la provincia de Granada (SE de España)''. Ardeola, 45(2), 151-160.][Kumawat, R., Saran, R. P., & Purohit, A. (2018). ''Bonelli’s Eagle: Records of predation on Varanus griseus and Ptyonoprogne concolor by Aquila fasciata in Agolai, Jodhpur, India''. ZOO'S PRINT, 33(5).][Elósegui, J. (1974). ''Informe preliminar sobre alimentación de aves rapaces en Navarra y provincias limítrofes''. Ardeola, 19(2), 249-256.] In total, some 130 bird species may be taken and birds as a whole almost always form the most ample part of the diet compared to other classes: 69.5% and 80.97% of the biomass in the south of France
Southern France, also known as the South of France or colloquially in French as , is a defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Marais Poitevin,Louis Papy, ''Le midi atlantique'', A ...
, 67.7% in Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
and 62.6% in Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
.[
]
Other assorted prey
Beyond the high significance of rabbits (and sometimes other lagomorphs), other mammals are rarely as important or diverse in the diet of Bonelli's eagles as birds are. A couple of rodents can be locally significant secondary prey, however. The red squirrel (''Sciurus vulgaris''), with a mean estimated mass in Spain of , was reported in almost all western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
studies, with about 130 reported as taken in studies from Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
.[ The black rat (''Rattus rattus''), of similar size to the squirrel at an average of about was an important secondary food source in islands south and east of ]Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
, being the second most common prey species in Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
(15.5% of 528 prey items) and fifth most important prey species in the Aegean islands.[ In ]northwestern Africa
The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
such as Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
, it was reported that the fat sand rat (''Psammomys obesus''), another rodent of similar size, was amongst the favorite foods locally for Bonelli's eagles. Other rodent species known in the diet of Bonelli's eagles have included other squirrels, gundis, assorted mice, vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s, dormice
A dormouse is a rodent of the family Gliridae (this family is also variously called Myoxidae or Muscardinidae by different taxonomists). Dormice are nocturnal animals found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. They are named for their long, dormant hibe ...
and blind mole rats.[Burger, J., Hiessler, N., Ponchon, C., & Vincent-Martin, N. (2013). ''Plan national d’actions en faveur de l’Aigle de Bonelli, Aquila fasciata (2014-2023)''. In Ministère de l'environnement et du développement durable et de l'energie.] Beyond a few species of hedgehog
A hedgehog is a spiny mammal of the subfamily Erinaceinae, in the eulipotyphlan family Erinaceidae. There are seventeen species of hedgehog in five genera found throughout parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in New Zealand by introductio ...
s, additional mammalian prey for this species, although seldom taken, can be relatively large. They've been known to attack the young of various ungulates include blackbuck
The blackbuck (''Antilope cervicapra''), also known as the Indian antelope, is an antelope native to India and Nepal. It inhabits grassy plains and lightly forested areas with perennial water sources.
It stands up to high at the shoulder. Ma ...
(''Antilope cervicapra''), chinkara (''Gazella bennettii''), domestic goat
The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
s (''Capra aegagrus hircus'') and domestic sheep
Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated ...
(''Ovis aries'').[ In the Aegean islands, live-caught but often young and small goat kids comprised 8.5% of the foods and 24.3% of the biomass at nests.][ Among carnivorans, Bonelli's eagles have reportedly attacked red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'') and ]wildcat
The wildcat is a species complex comprising two small wild cat species: the European wildcat (''Felis silvestris'') and the African wildcat (''F. lybica''). The European wildcat inhabits forests in Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus, while th ...
s (''Felis silvestris'') (probably mostly kits and kittens of these two species) in western Europe as well as stone marten
The beech marten (''Martes foina''), also known as the stone marten, house marten or white breasted marten, is a species of marten native to much of Europe and Central Asia, though it has established a feral population in North America. It is li ...
s (''Martes foina'') and assorted weasel
Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender b ...
s. Meanwhile, adult Bengal fox
The Bengal fox (''Vulpes bengalensis''), also known as the Indian fox, is a fox endemic to the Indian subcontinent from the Himalayan foothills and Terai of Nepal through southern India, and from southern and eastern Pakistan to eastern India an ...
(''Vulpes bengalensis'') have reportedly been caught in India.[ In France and Spain, mammals overall comprised 34.8% and 26.1% of the diet, respectively, whereas in Georgia they made up 15.4% of the diet.][ Reptiles are usually secondary prey throughout the range. Though they are known to hunt ]snake
Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes . Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more j ...
s, Bonelli's eagles rarely hunt them and generally seem to pursue lizards by preference. In Cyprus, starred agamas (''Laudakia stellio'') comprised 5.9% of the food, unidentified ''Lacerta
Lacerta is one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union. Its name is Latin for lizard. A small, faint constellation, it was defined in 1687 by the astronomer Johannes Hevelius. Its brightest stars form a "W" ...
'' lizards 10.76% of diet in Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
(and reptiles altogether adding up to 16.9% of the food by number). Relatively large adult specimens of ocellated lizard
The ocellated lizard or jewelled lizard (''Timon lepidus'') is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae (wall lizards). The species is endemic to southwestern Europe.
Common names
Additional common names for ''T. lepidus'' include eyed liza ...
(''Timon lepidus''), at in mean body mass, made up 3.97% of the biomass and 7.05% by number in Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
.[ Desert monitor (''Varanus griseus'') and probably assorted other monitor lizards were reportedly amongst the leading prey for Bonelli's eagles in several parts of India.][ Minor prey includes ]toads
Toad is a common name for certain frogs, especially of the family Bufonidae, that are characterized by dry, leathery skin, short legs, and large bumps covering the parotoid glands.
A distinction between frogs and toads is not made in scienti ...
and possibly a few other types of amphibian. Potentially insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s and/or other invertebrate
Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...
s may be taken but these may incidentally consumed (i.e. undigested food from the stomachs of prey).[
]
Interspecies predatory relationships
Bonelli's eagles frequently occur in range with multiple other eagles and competing predators. Almost certainly the most direct competitor from their European range to the Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
is their much larger cousin, the golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird ...
. Habitat preferences overlap between these two eagles with both species favoring rocky habitats, though the golden eagle regularly dwells at slightly higher elevations with alpine meadows (though is as adaptive to low elevations as the Bonelli's so long as habitat is favorable and undisturbed).[ Competition between the eagles has been reported in particular from Spain, in areas such as ]Sierra Morena
The Sierra Morena is one of the main systems of mountain ranges in Spain. It stretches for 450 kilometres from east to west across the south of the Iberian Peninsula, forming the southern border of the ''Meseta Central'' plateau and providi ...
. Both species excluded each other from mutual territories and had broadly overlapping food habits. However, the Bonelli's eagle took more birds and golden eagle more singularly hunted rabbits. Mean distance between nests on a plot of was found to be for 8 pairs of golden eagles and for 10 pairs of Bonelli's. The two can co-exist with sufficiently large ranges as long as they are able to maintain their own range, with the existence of trophic segregation (by size and the more avian based diet of the Bonelli's) and the lag in the breeding periods, as these natural mechanisms would allow the coexistence of both species in the mountain.[Moreno-Rueda, G., Pizarro, M., Ontiveros, D., & Pleguezuelos, J. M. (2009). ''The coexistence of the eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Hieraaetus fasciatus increases with low human population density, intermediate temperature, and high prey diversity''. In 'Annales Zoologici Fennici' (Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 283-290). Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing.] Cases of golden eagles taking over prior Bonelli's eagles territories have been reported but usually golden eagles only takes up the prior Bonelli's territory when the latter vanishes due to unrelated (often anthropogenic) causes not direct competition or usurpation. A minor negative effect has been probably correlated with golden eagles not infrequently attacking and displacing juvenile and subadult Bonelli's eagles and can tend to be behaviorally dominant in keeping with its larger size. This in turn presumably hampers the ability of the Bonelli's to expand their range after declines and stabilize their population. Further east, in Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
, Bonelli's and golden eagles are competitors as well. In the dry, barren Negev desert, golden eagles nests were found apart and Bonelli's were scarce. In the Judean desert
The Judaean Desert or Judean Desert ( he, מִדְבַּר יְהוּדָה, Midbar Yehuda}, both ''Desert of Judah'' or ''Judaean Desert''; ar, صحراء يهودا, Sahraa' Yahuda) is a desert in Palestine and Israel that lies east of Jerusa ...
, which has more annual rainfall and more available prey, the distance between golden eagle nests averaged and the Bonelli's eagle easily outnumbered them. Apparently, the Bonelli's eagle exceptionally outcompeted its larger cousin here due to a subtle topographic variation in the habitat.[ In Spain, Bonelli's eagles share cliff habitats beyond golden eagles also with peregrine falcons (''Falco peregrinus''), ]common raven
The common raven (''Corvus corax'') is a large all-black passerine bird. It is the most widely distributed of all corvids, found across the Northern Hemisphere. It is a raven known by many names at the subspecies level; there are at least ...
s, Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
s (''Bubo bubo'') and three species of vulture
A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including Condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and ...
. The eagles tend to dominate the smaller carnivorous birds in most circumstances, even the swifter peregrine. However, the still larger griffon vulture
The Eurasian griffon vulture (''Gyps fulvus'') is a large Old World vulture in the bird of prey family Accipitridae. It may also be known as the Griffon vulture, though it may be used for the genus as a whole. It is not to be confused with Rü ...
(''Gyps fulvus'') was apparently a routine territory and nest usurper of other birds of prey, displacing golden eagles, bearded vulture
The bearded vulture (''Gypaetus barbatus''), also known as the lammergeier and ossifrage, is a very large bird of prey and the only member of the genus ''Gypaetus''. Traditionally considered an Old World vulture, it actually forms a separate mi ...
s (''Gypaetus barbatus'') and Egyptian vulture
The Egyptian vulture (''Neophron percnopterus''), also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small Old World vulture and the only member of the genus ''Neophron''. It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula and ...
s (''Neophron percnopterus'') from their nests as well as 9 out of 23 eyries built by Bonelli's eagles in the study area. Despite their prior claimed “dominance” over the swift falcons, at least three cases have been observed of peregrine falcons usurping Bonelli's eagle (presumably through routine harassment and dive-bombing) nests in Spain.[Ontiveros, D., Caro, J., & Pleguezuelos, J. M. (2008). ''Possible functions of alternative nests in raptors: the case of Bonelli’s Eagle''. Journal of Ornithology, 149(2), 253-259.] Beyond golden eagles, peregrines and griffon vultures, tawny owl
The tawny owl (''Strix aluco''), also called the brown owl, is commonly found in woodlands across Europe to western Siberia, and has seven recognized subspecies. It is a stocky, medium-sized owl, whose underparts are pale with dark streaks, a ...
s (''Strix alucco'') have been known to take over old Bonelli's eagle nests.
European rabbits have a huge range of predators in the Iberian peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, with at least 30 different species known to hunt the once densely-populated lagomorph.[ Besides the overlapping ranges of the Bonelli's and golden eagles, most other birds of prey that hunt rabbits extensively are partitioned from the potential depletive effect of competition by differences in habitat preferences, hunting techniques and temporal activity. Beyond the specialized mammalian predator, the ]Iberian lynx
The Iberian lynx (''Lynx pardinus'') is a wild cat species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. In the 20th century, the Iberian lynx population had declined because of overhun ...
(''Lynx pardinus''), some of the other most specialized predators of wild rabbits are Bonelli's eagles, golden eagles, Spanish imperial eagle
The Spanish imperial eagle (''Aquila adalberti''), also known as the Spanish eagle or Adalbert's eagle, is a species of eagle native to the Iberian Peninsula. The binomial commemorates Prince Adalbert of Bavaria. Due to its distinct “epaule ...
s (''Aquila adalberti'') and Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
s.[Lloveras, L., Moreno‐García, M., & Nadal, J. (2009). ''The eagle owl (Bubo bubo) as a leporid remains accumulator: taphonomic analysis of modern rabbit remains recovered from nests of this predator''. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 19(5), 573-592.] A comparative study indicated that the golden eagle diet was comprised 40% by rabbits, while they made up 49% for eagle-owls, 50% for Spanish imperial eagles and 61% for Bonelli's eagle.[Voous, K.H. 1988. ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, 0262220350.] Elsewhere, higher import has been applied for rabbits in the local diet of golden eagles as well as for Spanish imperial eagles.[ The mean size of rabbits taken increases more or less with the size of the avian predator: for ]northern goshawk
The northern goshawk (; ''Accipiter gentilis'') is a species of medium-large raptor in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus '' Acci ...
s, for Bonelli's eagles, for Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
s and for golden eagles.[Donázar, J., & Ceballos, O. (1989). ''Selective predation by eagle owls Bubo bubo on rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus: age and sex preferences''. Ornis Scandinavica, 117-122.]
Along with northern goshawks, golden eagles and Eurasian eagle-owls, Bonelli's eagle is considered a “super predator” in the European region due to its habit of hunting other predators. In contrast to the other birds of prey, they are somewhat less commonly at high predator status compared to goshawks (most common predator of other diurnal raptors in studies), golden eagles (most common predator of mesopredator
A Mesopredator is a mid-ranking predator in a trophic level, which typically prey on smaller animals. Mesopredators often vary in ecosystems depending on the food web. While there is no definitive measurement for mesopredators, they are usually ref ...
mammals), and eagle-owl (most common predator of other owls).[Lourenço, R., Santos, S. M., Rabaça, J. E., & Penteriani, V. (2011). ''Superpredation patterns in four large European raptors''. Population Ecology, 53(1), 175-185.] However, they are relatively common predators of other diurnal birds of prey, per overall analysis they took such prey somewhat more regularly than did golden eagles in Europe.[ Among the other accipitrids that the Bonelli's eagle have been known to hunt include the Indian spotted eagle (''Clanga hastata''), ]European honey buzzard
The European honey buzzard (''Pernis apivorus''), also known as the pern or common pern, is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae.
Etymology
Despite its English name, this species is more closely related to kites of the genera '' Leptodon'' a ...
(''Pernis apivorus''), red kite
The red kite (''Milvus milvus'') is a medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards, and harriers. The species currently breeds in the Western Palearctic region o ...
(''Milvus milvus''), black kite
The black kite (''Milvus migrans'') is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have ...
(''Milvus migrans''), western marsh harrier
The western marsh harrier (''Circus aeruginosus'') is a large harrier, a bird of prey from temperate and subtropical western Eurasia and adjacent Africa. It is also known as the Eurasian marsh harrier. Formerly, a number of relatives were includ ...
(''Circus aeruginosus''), Montagu's harrier
Montagu's harrier (''Circus pygargus'') is a migratory bird of prey of the harrier family. Its common name commemorates the British naturalist George Montagu.
Taxonomy
The first formal description of Montagu's harrier was by the Swedish na ...
(''Circus pygargus''), hen harrier
The hen harrier (''Circus cyaneus'') is a bird of prey. It breeds in Eurasia. The term "hen harrier" refers to its former habit of preying on free-ranging fowl.
It migrates to more southerly areas in winter. Eurasian birds move to southern Eur ...
(''Circus cyaenus''), Eurasian sparrowhawk (''Accipiter nisus''), shikra
The shikra (''Accipiter badius'') is a small bird of prey in the family Accipitridae found widely distributed in Asia and Africa where it is also called the little banded goshawk. The African forms may represent a separate species but have usual ...
(''Accipiter badius''), northern goshawk
The northern goshawk (; ''Accipiter gentilis'') is a species of medium-large raptor in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus '' Acci ...
, long-legged buzzard
The long-legged buzzard (''Buteo rufinus'') is a bird of prey found widely in several parts of Eurasia and in North Africa. This species ranges from Southeastern Europe down to East Africa to the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The long ...
and common buzzard (''Buteo buteo'').[ Among falcons, they've been known to prey upon ]common kestrel
The common kestrel (''Falco tinnunculus'') is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In the United Kingdom, where n ...
(''Falco tinnunculus''), lesser kestrel
The lesser kestrel (''Falco naumanni'') is a small falcon. This species breeds from the Mediterranean across Afghanistan and Central Asia, to China and Mongolia. It is a summer migrant, wintering in Africa and Pakistan and sometimes even to Indi ...
(''Falco naumanni'') and peregrine falcon and as for owls, tawny owl
The tawny owl (''Strix aluco''), also called the brown owl, is commonly found in woodlands across Europe to western Siberia, and has seven recognized subspecies. It is a stocky, medium-sized owl, whose underparts are pale with dark streaks, a ...
(''Strix alucco''), little owl (''Athene noctua''), long-eared owl
The long-eared owl (''Asio otus''), also known as the northern long-eared owlOlsen, P.D. & Marks, J.S. (2019). ''Northern Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)''. In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). Handbook o ...
(''Asio otus''), short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
(''Asio flammeus'') and most impressively of all, in at least one instance, an adult Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
.[ Although usually classed as an ]apex predator
An apex predator, also known as a top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own.
Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest trophic lev ...
, as in most cases of apex predators in competitive environments, Bonelli's eagles sometimes infrequently fall victim to interspecific killings and predation as well. Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
s have been known to prey on Bonelli's nestlings a few times and possibly also an adult at least once. In one case, a subadult male golden eagle preyed upon an adult male Bonelli's eagle. Stone marten
The beech marten (''Martes foina''), also known as the stone marten, house marten or white breasted marten, is a species of marten native to much of Europe and Central Asia, though it has established a feral population in North America. It is li ...
s are also counted amongst the predators of nests (exclusively as egg thieves) in Spain.
Breeding
Pair formation and nest distribution
Bonelli's eagles, like most but not all raptorial birds, generally lives solitarily or in pairs. They usually mate for life.[Wilhelm, J. (1986). '' n the intimacy of a pair of Bonelli's Eagles in Provence'. Ciconia, 10: 43.] Territories are maintained through aerial displays which often involve calling, single or mutual high circling and, most frequently, sky-dancing in the area of eyrie. During this species’ sky-dances, one or other of the eagle pair plunges headlong from a great height, with its wings almost closed, before checking and rising again on stiff wings, circling to regain original altitude and diving again. The sky-dance sequence may be repeated up to 5-10 times. Occasionally but usually infrequently, territorial exclusions escalate into talon grappling between a territorial bird and an intruder.[ Aerial display extend with diminished frequency into the incubation and early nestling periods.][ In Spain, the average estimated size of a pairs home range was a very large , though only 27.3% of their home ranges on average were used in all seasons.][Pérez-García, J. M., Margalida, A., Afonso, I., Ferreiro, E., Gardiazábal, A., Botella, F., & Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. (2013). ''Interannual home range variation, territoriality and overlap in breeding Bonelli’s eagles (Aquila fasciata) tracked by GPS satellite telemetry''. Journal of Ornithology, 154(1), 63-71.][Martínez-Miranzo, B., Banda, E., Gardiazábal, A., Ferreiro, E., & Aguirre, J. I. (2016). ''Differential spatial use and spatial fidelity by breeders in Bonelli’s Eagle (Aquila fasciata)''. Journal of ornithology, 157(4), 971-979.] Home ranges in Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
were estimated to average up to .[Ferreira, A. (2011). ''Microhabitat factors affecting nest site selection and breeding success of tree-nesting Bonelli's Eagles (Aquila fasciata)'' (Doctoral dissertation).] On Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, the mean nearest neighbor distance was with 0.52-0.65 pairs per .[ Contrary to many other raptor species, it was found that were no significant relationship between the density of their main prey species and the distance of the neighbouring pairs. A dead or missing mate may be quickly replaced and mature adults have additionally been seen breeding with subadults.][
]
Nests
The breeding season of Bonelli's eagles is from late January/February to July in the western part of the range and November–August/September (peaking December–May) in the Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
and Myanmar
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
. Both members of the pair may dwell around the eyrie for up to 2–3 months before breeding. Their nest is a huge structure of branches and sticks, scarcely smaller than those built by eagles twice the size of this species, though rarely as great in depth as some old nests of the larger eagles. Often the nest completely obscures the sitting female from view unless it is seen at the same level or higher than the nest. Nest size can average up to across and deep but with repeated use the nest can range up to in both directions (record sized nest in India was in height). Tree nests tend to average larger than those placed on cliff ledges.[ One nest in the ]Gir forest
Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, also known as Sasan Gir, is a forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary near Talala Gir in Gujarat, India. It is located north-east of Somnath, south-east of Junagadh and south-west of Amreli ...
was used periodically used over the course of 30 years.[ While they may line their active nest with greenery, it is less frequent and sparser where present than in many other birds of prey.][ Nesting locales are often high on cliff ledge or alternatively at (usually over ) above the ground in large trees.][ Very rarely, nests may too be on the perimeter of buildings. The trees selected are often the tallest and/or most densely foliaged in a given stand.][ Their close cousin, the ]African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf ...
, usually nests on trees and rarely utilizes crags and alternate nesting sites as does the Bonelli's.[ Historically, throughout their range in ]western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, Bonelli's eagles were considered almost obligate cliff nesters on almost any rocky environment, from precipitous mountain ranges, canyons over river valleys, even down to low rocky rubble to sea cliffs. However, up to 52 tree nests for the species have now been recorded in southwest Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
. Often the Portuguese nesting eagles used invasive Tasmanian blue gum
''Eucalyptus globulus'' subsp. ''globulus'', commonly known as the Tasmanian blue gum, southern blue gum, or blue gum, is a subspecies of tree that is Endemism, endemic to southeastern Australia. It has mostly smooth bark with some persistent sl ...
(''Eucalyptus globulus'') (44.2% of the time) while a further 21.2% were on cork oak
''Quercus suber'', commonly called the cork oak, is a medium-sized, evergreen oak tree in the section ''Quercus'' sect. ''Cerris''. It is the primary source of cork for wine bottle stoppers and other uses, such as cork flooring and as the core ...
(''Quercus suber'') not to mention some that were placed on large shrubs, i.e. strawberry trees (''Arbutus unedo''). The mean height of Portuguese tree nest was . The Portuguese study further found 67.3% of the tree nests to be on hill slopes and average height for lowest branch, both presumably as anti-predator measure.[ By 2017, the expansion to using tree nests had bolstered the southwest Portugal population considerably.][Dias, A., Palma, L., Carvalho, F., Neto, D., Real, J., & Beja, P. (2017). ''The role of conservative versus innovative nesting behavior on the 25‐year population expansion of an avian predator''. Ecology and evolution, 7(12), 4241-4253.] In the 1990s, the first ever tree nest was found in the relative Bonelli's eagle stronghold of Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, while another singular tree nest was also found in the south of France. In India, Bonelli's eagles seem to readily switch between tree and cliff nests. The eagles of areas such as Maharashtra and the Western Ghats are usually partial to nesting in trees while in the Deccan Peninsula, Indo-Gangetic plain and Himalayan foothills, the eagles alternated between nesting on cliffs and lofty trees including red silk cotton (''Bombax ceiba''), sacred fig (''Ficus religiosa''), Javan plum (''Syzygium cumini'') or ''Dalbergia
''Dalbergia'' is a large genus of small to medium-size trees, shrubs and lianas in the pea family, Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It was recently assigned to the informal monophyletic ''Dalbergia'' clade (or tribe): the Dalbergieae. ...
ssp''. Bonelli's eagles in India may also nest close to human habitations if disturbance is low, such as in Saurashtra and in Himalayan foothills, in the latter often in large chir pine
''Pinus roxburghii'', commonly known as chir pine or longleaf Indian pine, is a species of pine tree native to the Himalayas. It was named after William Roxburgh.
Description
''Pinus roxburghii'' is a large tree reaching with a trunk diameter ...
(''Pinus roxburghii'') near villages. In Pakistan, the species has been known to use seaside cliffs. Also, in the Indian desert zone, Bonelli's eagles are known to use relatively low rocky hills with shallow gradients, making the nest ledges relatively easy to access.[ On ]Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...