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Bernard Bailyn (September 10, 1922 – August 7, 2020) was an American historian, author, and academic specializing in U.S. Colonial and Revolutionary-era History. He was a professor at
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of highe ...
from 1953. Bailyn won the Pulitzer Prize for History twice (in 1968 and 1987)."History"
''Past winners & finalists by category''. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2012-03-17.
In 1998 the
National Endowment for the Humanities The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency of the U.S. government, established by thNational Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965(), dedicated to supporting research, education, preserv ...
selected him for the Jefferson Lecture.Jefferson Lecturers
at NEH Website (retrieved January 22, 2009).
He was a recipient of the 2010
National Humanities Medal The National Humanities Medal is an American award that annually recognizes several individuals, groups, or institutions for work that has "deepened the nation's understanding of the humanities, broadened our citizens' engagement with the huma ...
. He specialized in American colonial and revolutionary-era history, looking at merchants, demographic trends, Loyalists, international links across the Atlantic, and especially the political ideas that motivated the Patriots. He was best known for studies of
republicanism Republicanism is a political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. Historically, it emphasises the idea of self-rule and ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to popular sovereignty. ...
and Atlantic history that transformed the scholarship in those fields. He was elected a Fellow of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (abbreviation: AAA&S) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780 during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, Andrew Oliver, a ...
in 1963 and a member of the
American Philosophical Society The American Philosophical Society (APS), founded in 1743 in Philadelphia, is a scholarly organization that promotes knowledge in the sciences and humanities through research, professional meetings, publications, library resources, and communit ...
in 1971.


Education

Bailyn was born in
Hartford, Connecticut Hartford is the capital city of the U.S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960. It is the core city in the Greater Hartford metropolitan area. Census estimates since t ...
in 1922, the son of Esther (Schloss) and Charles Manuel Bailyn. His family was Jewish. Bailyn earned his bachelor's degree from
Williams College Williams College is a private liberal arts college in Williamstown, Massachusetts. It was established as a men's college in 1793 with funds from the estate of Ephraim Williams, a colonist from the Province of Massachusetts Bay who was kille ...
in 1945 and in 1953 earned his Ph.D from
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of highe ...
. He was associated with Harvard for the rest of his life. As a
graduate student Postgraduate or graduate education refers to academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. The organization and s ...
at Harvard, he studied under
Perry Miller Perry Gilbert Eddy Miller (February 25, 1905 – December 9, 1963) was an American intellectual historian and a co-founder of the field of American Studies. Miller specialized in the history of early America, and took an active role in a revi ...
, Samuel Eliot Morison, and
Oscar Handlin Oscar Handlin (1915–2011) was an American historian. As a professor of history at Harvard University for over 50 years, he directed 80 PhD dissertations and helped promote social and ethnic history, virtually inventing the field of immigrat ...
. He was made a full professor in 1961, and professor emeritus in 1993. In 1979, he received an honorary doctorate from Grinnell College in Grinnell, Iowa.


History books

Bernard Bailyn was the author of ''The Ideological Origins of the
American Revolution The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revoluti ...
'' (1967), which was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1968. He was the editor of ''The Apologia of
Robert Keayne Robert Keayne (1595 – March 23, 1656) was a prominent public figure in 17th-century Boston, Massachusetts. He co-founded the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts and served as speaker of the House of the Massachusetts G ...
'' (1965) and of the two-volume ''Debate on the Constitution'' (1993). He co-authored ''The Great Republic'' (1977), an American history textbook, and was co-editor of ''The Intellectual Migration, Europe and America, 1930–1960'' (1969), ''Law in American History'' (1972), ''The Press and the American Revolution'' (1980), and ''Strangers Within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire'' (1991).


Major themes and ideas

Bailyn's dissertation and first publications dealt with
New England New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
merchants. He argued that
international commerce International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories because there is a need or want of goods or services. (see: World economy) In most countries, such trade represents a significan ...
was an uncertain business, given the high risk of losses at sea in the very long turnaround times meant that information was often too old to be useful. Merchants reduced the uncertainty by pooling their resources, especially with marriages to other merchant families, and placing their kinfolk as trusted agents in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
and other foreign ports. International commerce became a chief means of growing rich in
colonial Massachusetts Colonial or The Colonial may refer to: * Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology) Architecture * American colonial architecture * French Colonial * Spanish Colonial architecture Automobiles * Colonial (1920 a ...
. However, there was an ongoing tension between the
entrepreneurial Entrepreneurship is the creation or extraction of economic value. With this definition, entrepreneurship is viewed as change, generally entailing risk beyond what is normally encountered in starting a business, which may include other values th ...
spirit on the one hand and traditional
Puritan The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. ...
culture on the other. The world of merchants became an engine of social change, undermining the isolationism,
scholasticism Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories. Christian scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translat ...
, and religious zeal of the Puritan leadership. Bailyn pointed the younger generation of historians away from Puritan theology and toward broader social and economic forces. Bailyn expanded his research to the social structure of
Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are ...
, showing how its leadership class was transformed in the 1660s. Like Edmund Morgan at
Brown University Brown University is a private research university in Providence, Rhode Island. Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providenc ...
and
Yale Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wor ...
, Bailyn emphasized the multiple roles of the family in the colonial social system.A. Roger Ekirch, "Bernard Bailyn," in Clyde N. Wilson, ed. Twentieth-century American Historians (Gale Research Company, 1983) pp 19–26 Bailyn is known for meticulous research and for interpretations that sometimes challenge the conventional wisdom, especially those dealing with the causes and effects of the
American Revolution The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revoluti ...
. In his most influential work, ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution'', Bailyn analyzed pre-Revolutionary political pamphlets to show that colonists believed the British intended to establish a tyrannical state that would abridge the historical British rights. He thus argued that the Revolutionary rhetoric of liberty and freedom was not simply
propagandistic Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loa ...
but rather central to their understanding of the situation. This evidence was used to displace Charles A. Beard's theory, then the dominant understanding of the American Revolution, that the American Revolution was primarily a matter of
class warfare Class conflict, also referred to as class struggle and class warfare, is the political tension and economic antagonism that exists in society because of socio-economic competition among the social classes or between rich and poor. The for ...
and that the
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...
of liberty was meaningless. Bailyn maintained that
ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied pri ...
was ingrained in the revolutionaries, an attitude he said exemplified the "transforming radicalism of the American Revolution." Bailyn argued that
republicanism Republicanism is a political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. Historically, it emphasises the idea of self-rule and ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to popular sovereignty. ...
was at the core of the values
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
radical thinkers had striven to affirm. He located the intellectual sources of the
American Revolution The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revoluti ...
within a broader British political framework, explaining how English country Whig ideas about
civic virtue Civic virtue is the harvesting of habits important for the success of a society. Closely linked to the concept of citizenship, civic virtue is often conceived as the dedication of citizens to the common welfare of each other even at the cost of ...
,
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
, ancient rights, and fear of
autocracy Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power over a state is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject neither to external legal restraints nor to regularized mechanisms of popular control (except per ...
were, in the colonies, transformed into the ideology of republicanism. According to Bailyn, In Bailyn's assessment, contested libertarian meanings change through time as "the colonists" struggled to define, and to pursue, the property of independence. Recent historians hold that more than any other "colonist," Boston waterfront rebels channeled their "
cosmopolitanism Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings are members of a single community. Its adherents are known as cosmopolitan or cosmopolite. Cosmopolitanism is both prescriptive and aspirational, believing humans can and should be " world citizen ...
into a belief that 'the cause of America' was a libertarian 'cause for all mankind." In her memorial tribute, Harvard historian
Joyce Chaplin Joyce E. Chaplin (born July 28, 1960, in Antioch, California) is an American historian and academic known for her writing and research on early American history, environmental history, and intellectual history. She is the James Duncan Phillips Prof ...
noted Bernard Bailyn's resistance to "dichotomies" and his attention to "granular" records and culture.


Social history

In the 1980s, Bailyn turned from political and
intellectual history Intellectual history (also the history of ideas) is the study of the history of human thought and of intellectuals, people who conceptualize, discuss, write about, and concern themselves with ideas. The investigative premise of intellectual hist ...
to social and demographic history. His histories of the peopling of colonial North America explored questions of
immigration Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, ...
, cultural contact, and settlement that his mentor Handlin had pioneered decades earlier. Bailyn was a major innovator in new research techniques, such as quantification, collective biography, and kinship analysis. Bailyn is representative of those scholars who believe in the concept of
American exceptionalism American exceptionalism is the belief that the United States is inherently different from other nations.terminology Terminology is a group of specialized words and respective meanings in a particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use; the latter meaning is also known as terminology science. A ''term'' is a word, compound word, or multi-wo ...
, and thereby avoid getting entangled in rhetorical debates. According to
Michael Kammen Michael Gedaliah Kammen (October 25, 1936 – November 29, 2013) was an American professor of American cultural history in the Department of History at Cornell University. At the time of his death, he held the title "Newton C. Farr professor emeri ...
and Stanley N. Katz:


Atlantic history

As a leading advocate of Atlantic history, Bailyn organized an annual international seminar on the "History of the Atlantic World" from the mid-1980s onward. Through the seminar, he promoted social and demographic studies, especially regarding flows of population into colonial America. Bailyn's ''Atlantic History: Concepts and Contours'' (2005) explores the borders and contents of the emerging field, which emphasizes cosmopolitan and multicultural elements that have tended to be neglected or considered in isolation by traditional historiography dealing with the Americas.


Personal life

Bailyn was married to MIT Professor of Management
Lotte Bailyn Lotte Franziska Bailyn (née Lazarsfeld; born July 17, 1930) is an American social psychologist. She is the T Wilson Professor of Management, Emerita at the MIT Sloan School of Management. She was the first woman faculty member at MIT Sloan. Ear ...
(née Lazarsfeld). His two sons are Charles Bailyn, who is an astrophysicist at
Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the w ...
, and John Bailyn, a
linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Lingu ...
at
Stony Brook University Stony Brook University (SBU), officially the State University of New York at Stony Brook, is a public research university in Stony Brook, New York. Along with the University at Buffalo, it is one of the State University of New York system' ...
. Bailyn died on August 7, 2020, at his home in
Belmont, Massachusetts Belmont is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts. It is a western suburb of Boston, Massachusetts, United States; and is part of the Greater Boston metropolitan area. At the time of the 2020 U.S. Census, the town's population stood at 27,29 ...
. He was 97 and suffered from heart failure.


Students

Former students of Bailyn include
Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prize () is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine, online journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of Joseph Pulitzer, who had made ...
winners
Michael Kammen Michael Gedaliah Kammen (October 25, 1936 – November 29, 2013) was an American professor of American cultural history in the Department of History at Cornell University. At the time of his death, he held the title "Newton C. Farr professor emeri ...
,
Jack N. Rakove Jack Norman Rakove (born June 4, 1947) is an American historian, author and professor at Stanford University. He is a Pulitzer Prize winner. Biography Rakove was born in Chicago to Political Science Professor Milton L. Rakove (1918–1983) an ...
, and Gordon S. Wood, as well as Pulitzer Prize finalist Mary Beth Norton. Other notable Bailyn students include: * Fred Anderson (''Crucible of War'' and ''A People's Army''); * Virginia DeJohn Anderson (''Creatures of Empire'') * Mary Sarah Bilder *
Richard L. Bushman Richard Lyman Bushman (June 20, 1931) is an American historian and Gouverneur Morris Professor Emeritus of History at Columbia University, having previously taught at Brigham Young University, Harvard University, Boston University, and the U ...
(''From Puritan to Yankee''); * Philip J. Greven (''The Protestant Temperament'', ''Spare the Child''); * Richard D. Brown (''Revolutionary Politics in Massachusetts: The Boston Committee of Correspondence and the Towns, 1772–1774'' and ''Knowledge Is Power: The Diffusion of Information in Early America, 1700–1865''); * Sally E. Hadden (''Slave Patrols'') * David Hancock (historian) ("Oceans of Wine: Madeira and the Emergence of American Trade and Taste," "Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735–1785) * James Henretta (''Families and farms: Mentalité in Pre-Industrial America''); * Peter Charles Hoffer (''Law and People in Colonial America'', among others) * Daniel Hulsebosch, Russell D. Niles Professor of Law at
New York University School of Law New York University School of Law (NYU Law) is the law school of New York University, a private research university in New York City. Established in 1835, it is the oldest law school in New York City and the oldest surviving law school in ...
* Stanley N. Katz (''Newcastle's New York'') * James Kettner (''The Development of American Citizenship, 1608-1870'') * David Konig, Washington University in St. Louis professor of law and history * Pauline Maier (''American Scripture'' on the Declaration and ''Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788'', winner of the 2011 George Washington Book Prize and the Fraunces Tavern Book Prize); * William E. Nelson, legal and constitutional historian and Edward Weinfeld Professor of Law at
New York University School of Law New York University School of Law (NYU Law) is the law school of New York University, a private research university in New York City. Established in 1835, it is the oldest law school in New York City and the oldest surviving law school in ...
, author of ''The Fourteenth Amendment: From Political Principle to Judicial Doctrine'' (1988), winner of the Littleton-Griswold Prize of the
American Historical Association The American Historical Association (AHA) is the oldest professional association of historians in the United States and the largest such organization in the world. Founded in 1884, the AHA works to protect academic freedom, develop professional s ...
, and many other books * Daniel Oliver (policymaker), former executive editor of '' National Review'' and former chairman of the
Federal Trade Commission The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is an independent agency of the United States government whose principal mission is the enforcement of civil (non-criminal) antitrust law and the promotion of consumer protection. The FTC shares jurisdiction o ...
* Jeffrey Pasley (''The First Presidential Contest'', ''The Tyranny of Printers'', ''Beyond the Founders'' * Mark A. Peterson (''The City State of Boston''); *George David Smith (practitioner of applied economic and business history and founding partner of The Winthrop Group, Inc. ''Anatomy of a Business Strategy" o-winner: Best book on Business and Industry, American Publishers' Assn. "From Monopoly to Competition;" "The New Financial Capitalists,'' with George Baker; ''History of The Firm cKinsey & Co.'' lead author, * Peter H. Wood (''Black Majority''); * Michael Zuckerman (''Peaceable Kingdoms'') Many of these historians have gone on to train a new generation of American historians; others have branched out into fields as diverse as law and the history of science.


See also

* Early American publishers and printers#American Revolution


Bibliography

* * ''Massachusetts Shipping, 1697–1714: A Statistical Study'' (with Lotte Bailyn). Harvard University Press, 1959. * ''Education in the Forming of American Society: Needs and Opportunities for Study''. University of North Carolina Press, 1960. * Awarded the
Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prize () is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine, online journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of Joseph Pulitzer, who had made ...
and the Bancroft Prize in 1968. * ''The Origins of American Politics''. Knopf, 1968. * ''The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson''. Harvard University Press, 1974; winner of the 1975
National Book Award The National Book Awards are a set of annual U.S. literary awards. At the final National Book Awards Ceremony every November, the National Book Foundation presents the National Book Awards and two lifetime achievement awards to authors. The Nat ...
in History. * ''The Great Republic: A History of the American People''. Little, Brown, 1977; coauthored college textbook; several editions. * ''The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction''. Knopf, 1986. * '' Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution''. Knopf, 1986; won the Pulitzer Prize in History, the Saloutos Award of the Immigration History Society, and distinguished book awards from the
Society of Colonial Wars The Society of Colonial Wars is a hereditary society composed of men who trace their descents from forebears who, in military, naval, or civil positions of high trust and responsibility, by acts or counsel, assisted in the establishment, defense ...
and the
Society of the Cincinnati The Society of the Cincinnati is a fraternal, hereditary society founded in 1783 to commemorate the American Revolutionary War that saw the creation of the United States. Membership is largely restricted to descendants of military officers wh ...
. * ''Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence''. Knopf, 1990. * Bailyn, Bernard, ed. ''The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification''. Part One: ''September 1787 to February 1788''. Library of America, 1993. * Bailyn, Bernard, ed. ''The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification''. Part Two: ''January to August 1788''. Library of America, 1993. * ''On the Teaching and Writing of History''. 1994. * Edited version of the 1995 Charles La Trobe Lecture. * ''To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders''. Knopf, 2003. * ''Atlantic History: Concept and Contours''. Harvard University Press, 2005. * ''The Barbarous Years: The Peopling of British North America: The Conflict of Civilizations, 1600–1675'', Alfred A. Knopf, 2012, . * ''Sometimes an Art: Nine Essays on History'', Alfred A. Knopf, 2015, .


References


Further reading

*Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers'' (Rutledge, 1999) 1:66–68. * Coclanis, Peter A. "Drang Nach Osten: Bernard Bailyn, the World-Island, and the Idea of Atlantic History." ''Journal of World History'' 13.1 (2002): 169–182. *Ekirch, A. Roger "Bernard Bailyn," in Clyde N. Wilson, ed. ''Twentieth-century American Historians'' (Gale Research Company, 1983) pp 19–26 * Kammen, Michael and Stanley N. Katz, "Bernard Bailyn, Historian, and Teacher: An Appreciation." in James A. Henretta, Michael Kämmen, and Stanley N. Katz, eds. ''The Transformation of Early American History: Society, Authority, and Ideology'' (1991) pp 3–15 * Rakove, Jack N. "'How Else Could It End?' Bernard Bailyn and the Problem of Authority and Early America." in James A. Henretta, Michael Kämmen, and Stanley N. Katz, eds. ''The Transformation of Early American History: Society, Authority, and Ideology'' (1991) pp 51–69 * Rakove, Jack N. "Bernard Bailyn" in Robert Allen Rutland, ed. "Clio's Favorites: Leading Historians of the United States, 1945–2000" (U of Missouri Press. 2000) pp 5–22. * Wood, Gordon. "The creative imagination of Bernard Bailyn," in James A. Henretta, Michael Kämmen, and Stanley N. Katz, eds. ''The Transformation of Early American History: Society, Authority, and Ideology'' (1991) pp 16–50.


External links


"To Begin the World Anew"-Politics and the Creative Imagination
Jefferson Lecture for the
National Endowment for the Humanities The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency of the U.S. government, established by thNational Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965(), dedicated to supporting research, education, preserv ...

Bernard Bailyn: An AppreciationConsidering the Slave Trade: History and Memory
*

Charles C. Mann Charles C. Mann (born 1955) is an American journalist and author, specializing in scientific topics. In 2006 his book '' 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus'' won the National Academies Communication Award for best book of the ...
, ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'', 4 January 2013 {{DEFAULTSORT:Bailyn, Bernard 1922 births 2020 deaths 20th-century American historians 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American historians 21st-century American male writers Academics of the University of Cambridge Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Harvard University alumni Harvard University faculty Historians of the American Revolution Historians of the Thirteen Colonies Historians of political thought Jewish American historians National Book Award winners National Humanities Medal recipients Presidents of the American Historical Association Pulitzer Prize for History winners Quadrant (magazine) people Williams College alumni American male non-fiction writers Writers from Hartford, Connecticut Historians from Connecticut 21st-century American Jews Members of the American Philosophical Society