The Battle of Bapheus occurred on 27 July 1302, between an Ottoman army under

Osman I Osman I or Osman Ghazi (; or ''Osman Gazi''; died 1323/4) was the eponymous founder of the Ottoman Empire (first known as a bey, beylik or emirate). While initially a small Turkoman (ethnonym), Turkoman principality during Osman's lifetime, h ...

and a

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...

army under George Mouzalon. The battle ended in a crucial Ottoman victory, cementing the Ottoman state and heralding the final capture of

Bithynia by the Ottoman Turks.

Strategic context

had succeeded in the leadership of his clan in c. 1281, and over the next two decades launched a series of ever-deeper raids into the

borderlands of Bithynia. By 1301, the Ottoman Turks were besieging Nicaea, the former imperial capital of the

s, and pillaging the outskirts of Prusa. The Turkish raids also threatened the port city of Nicomedia with famine, as Turkish warrior bands roamed the countryside and prohibited the collection of the harvest (see

Akinji Akinji or akindji (, ; plural: ''akıncılar'') were Turkish people, Turkish Irregular military, irregular light cavalry, scout divisions (deli) and advance troops of the Ottoman Empire's Military of the Ottoman Empire, military. When the pre-e ...

). In the spring of 1302, the Co-Emperor Michael IX (r. 1294–1320) launched a campaign which reached south to Magnesia. The Turks, awed by his large army, avoided battle. Michael sought to confront them, but was dissuaded by his generals. The Turks, encouraged, resumed their raids, virtually isolating him at Magnesia. His army dissolved without battle, as the local troops left to defend their homes, and the

Alans The Alans () were an ancient and medieval Iranian peoples, Iranic Eurasian nomads, nomadic pastoral people who migrated to what is today North Caucasus – while some continued on to Europe and later North Africa. They are generally regarded ...

, too, left to rejoin their families in

Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...

. Michael was forced to withdraw by the sea, followed by another wave of refugees.

Battle

To counter the threat to Nicomedia, Michael's father,

Andronikos II Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), Latinization of names, Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. His reign marked the beginning of the recently restored em ...

(r. 1282–1328), sent a Byzantine force of some 2,000 men (half of whom were recently hired Alan mercenaries), under the '' megas hetaireiarches'', George Mouzalon, to cross over the

Bosporus The Bosporus or Bosphorus Strait ( ; , colloquially ) is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul, Turkey. The Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and forms one of the continental bo ...

and relieve the city.Bartusis (1997), p. 76Nicol (1993), p. 126 At the plain of Bapheus (), an unidentified site (perhaps to the east of Nicomedia but within sight of the city) on 27 July 1302, the

s met a Turkish army of some 5,000 light cavalry under Osman himself, composed of his own troops as well as allies from the Turkish tribes of

Paphlagonia Paphlagonia (; , modern translit. ''Paflagonía''; ) was an ancient region on the Black Sea coast of north-central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus (region), Pontus to the east, and separated from Phrygia (later, Galatia ...

and the Maeander River area. The Turkish cavalry charged the

s, whose Alan contingent did not participate in the battle. The Turks broke the

line, forcing George Mouzalon to withdraw into Nicomedia under the cover of the Alan force.Kazhdan (1991), p. 251

Aftermath

Bapheus was the first major victory for the nascent Ottoman Beylik, and of major significance for its future expansion: the Byzantines effectively lost control of the countryside of Bithynia, withdrawing to their forts, which, isolated, fell one by one. After this battle the countryside of Bithinya was left practically defenseless so Osman used this opportunity to conquer the castle of Koyunhisar and the costal town of Gemlik. The Byzantine defeat also sparked an exodus of the Christian population from the area into the European parts of the empire, further altering the region's demographic balance. Coupled with the defeat at Magnesia, which allowed the Turks to reach and establish themselves on the coasts of the

Aegean Sea The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some . In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn con ...

, Bapheus thus heralded the final loss of Asia Minor for Byzantium. According to Halil İnalcık, the battle allowed the Ottomans to achieve the characteristics and qualities of a state. The Ottoman conquest of Bithynia was nonetheless gradual, and the last Byzantine outpost there, Nicomedia, fell only in 1337. After the victory, thousands of Turkish gazi warriors, who believed that the resistance of the

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...

had been broken, came in hordes from the interior of

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

to Bithynia to raid for spoils. Byzantine historian George Pachymeres indicated that the news had reached the ghazis in Paphlagonia and that the fame of Osman Gazi had reached there. He writes that "now the threats came up to the gates of Constantinople and the Turks were wandering around freely in small groups on the other side of the Straits". There is not a single day that passes without hearing that the enemy is attacking the fortresses on the coast and taking people prisoners or killing them", Pachymeres reports.

Notes

Sources

* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Bapheus, Battle Of Conflicts in 1302 1302 in Asia 1300s in the Byzantine Empire 1300s in the Ottoman Empire Battles involving the Ottoman Empire Battles involving the Byzantine Empire Battles of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars History of Bursa Province Byzantine Bithynia