Background
{{Main, Syrian Civil War In 2011,Combatants
At the beginning of the Battle of Aleppo, rebels reportedly had between 6,000 and 7,000{{cite news, author=Matthew Weaver and Brian Whitaker , url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/middle-east-live/2012/aug/08/syria-crisis-rebels-kill-russian-general-live , title=Syria crisis: Assad's new offensive in Aleppo – live updates , newspaper=Guardian , date=8 August 2012, access-date=2 November 2012 , location=London fighters in 18 battalions.{{cite news, author=Ivan Watson , url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/26/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html , title=Battles for key cities of Aleppo, Damascus heat up in Syrian civil war , publisher=CNN , date=26 July 2012 , access-date=2 November 2012 The largest rebel group was theCourse of the battle
2012: Initial rebel attack and capture of Eastern Aleppo
{{Main, Combat operations in 2012 during the Battle of Aleppo Gunfire between rebels and security forces broke out in and around Salaheddine, a district in the city's southwest, on the night of 19 July 2012. In late July and early August 2012, the FSA continued its offensive in Aleppo, with both sides suffering a high level of casualties. Rebel commanders said their main aim was to capture the city center.{{cite news, last=Solomon , first=Erika , url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-idUKBRE86H18C20120731 , title=Syrian army pounds Aleppo, rebels claim successes , work=Reuters , date=31 July 2012, access-date=2 November 2012 On 30 July, the rebels seized a strategic checkpoint in Anadan, a town north of Aleppo, gaining a direct route between the city and the Turkish border—an important rebel supply base. They also captured2013: Advances and counter-advances
{{Main, Combat operations in 2013 during the Battle of Aleppo In December 2012, the2014: Syrian government encirclement of the rebels
{{Main, Combat operations in 2014 during the Battle of Aleppo Government forces, having lifted the siege of Aleppo in October 2013, continued their offensive in 2014. This culminated in the capture of the Sheikh Najjar industrial district north of Aleppo and the lifting of the siege of Aleppo Central Prison on 22 May 2014, which contained a garrison of government soldiers that had resisted rebel forces since 2012. A2015: War of attrition
{{Main, Combat operations in 2015 during the Battle of Aleppo {{See also, Aleppo offensive (October–December 2015), East Aleppo offensive (2015–16) In early January, the rebels recaptured the Majbal (sawmills) area of al-Brej and captured the southern entrance of the stone quarries known as al-Misat, forcing government troops to retreat to the north. Rebels also seized the Manasher al-Brej area. They tried to advance and take control of al-Brej Hill, with which they could seize the military supply road running between Aleppo Central Prison and the Handarat and al-Mallah areas. At the end of January, the rebels took control over some positions in al-Brej Hill. In mid-February, the Syrian Arab Army and its allies launched a major offensive in the northern Aleppo countryside, with the aim of cutting the last rebel supply routes into the city, and relieving the rebel siege of the Shi'a-majority towns Zahra'a and Nubl to the northwest of Aleppo. They quickly captured several villages, but bad weather conditions and an inability to call up reinforcements stalled the government offensive.{{cite news, url= http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Feb-19/288012-rebels-capture-32-pro-government-forces-in-aleppo.ashx , title= Rebel counter-attack, storms halt Aleppo offensive , newspaper=The Daily Star , agency=AFP , date=19 February 2015 , access-date=19 February 2015 A few days later, the rebels launched a counter-offensive, retaking two of four positions they had lost to Syrian government forces. On 9 March, opposition forces launched an assault on Handarat, north of Aleppo, after reportedly noticing confusion in the ranks of Syrian government troops after the February fighting.{{cite news, url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/03/syria-aleppo-handarat-strategic-turkey-opposition-regime.html, title=Rebels advance in Aleppo, first=Mohammed, last=al-Khatieb, publisher=Al Monitor, date=13 March 2015, access-date=14 March 2015, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714142919/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/03/syria-aleppo-handarat-strategic-turkey-opposition-regime.html, archive-date=14 July 2015, url-status=dead, df=dmy-all Opposition sources said the rebels had captured 40–50% of the village, or possibly even 75%, while the Army remained in control of the northern portion of Handarat. In contrast, a Syrian Army source stated they still controlled 80% of Handarat. On 18 March, after almost 10 days of fighting, the Syrian Army had fully expelled the rebels from Handarat, and re-established control of the village. On 13 April, Islamist opposition forces and2016: Supply lines cut, surrender, and evacuation
{{Main, Combat operations in 2016 during the Battle of Aleppo, Northern Aleppo offensive (February 2016), 2016 Aleppo campaign, Aleppo offensive (September–October 2016), Aleppo offensive (October–November 2016), Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016) left, Destroyed area in Aleppo By 2016, it was estimated that the population of rebel-held Eastern Aleppo had been reduced to 300,000, while 1.5 million were living in government-held Western Aleppo. In early February 2016, Syrian government forces and their allies broke a three-year rebel siege of two Shi'ite towns ofAftermath
On 22 February 2018, it was reported that the YPG had agreed to hand over eastern districts of Aleppo city to the Syrian government. According to Syrian state television, this decision was made to reinforce positions around the region of Afrin, and to halt Turkey's offensive. This came days after pro-Syrian government fighters agreed to bolster the Kurdish forces in the northwest. SOHR and a witness later said that Syrian government forces had entered the areas controlled by the Kurdish fighters. YPG spokesman Nouri Mahmoud however denied this claim. A YPG commander later stated that Kurdish fighters had shifted to Afrin to help repel a Turkish assault. As a result, he said the pro-Syrian government forces had regained control of the districts previously controlled by them. Throughout the start of 2020, the SAA made advances in the Idlib and Aleppo countryside. On the 17th of February, they had regained control of the last rebel-held suburbs in Aleppo city, gaining full control for the first time since 2012.{{cite web, url=http://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6635168/syria-forces-consolidate-control-of-aleppo/?cs=14232, title=Syria forces consolidate control of Aleppo, work=Canberra times, date=17 February 2020 , access-date=19 February 2020Strategic analysis
Rebel forces expanded into the countryside south of Aleppo to control sections of the M4 and M5 highways, effectively blocking ground reinforcements for the Syrian Army. Before the end of 2012, the Syrian Army in Aleppo was receiving sporadic supplies and ammunition replenishment by air or via backroads. The fall of Base 46, a large complex that reinforced and supplied government troops, was seen by experts as "a tactical turning point that may lead to a strategic shift" in the battle for Aleppo. In a November 2012, intelligence report, American publisher Strategic Forecasting, Inc. described the strategic position of government forces in Aleppo as "dire", and said the Free Syrian Army had them "essentially surrounded". On 26 November 2012, rebels captured Tishrin Dam, further isolating government forces in Aleppo and leaving only one route into Aleppo. By late January 2013 Deputy Prime MinisterThe role of Turkey
Turkey had sponsored rebel forces in Aleppo to a degree that eastern Aleppo was called "a Turkish card guarded by jihadis."{{cite magazine, author=Robert F. Worth, url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/magazine/aleppo-after-the-fall.html, title=Aleppo After the Fall, magazine=New York Times Magazine, date=24 May 2017 However, Turkish policy changed in August 2016, moving thousands of rebel fighters away from the area west of Aleppo to counter the secular federalistCasualties
With over four years of fighting, the battle of Aleppo represents one of the longest sieges in modern warfare, which left an estimated 31,183 people dead, almost a tenth of the overall Syrian war casualties at the time. The Violations Documentation Center in Syria assessed the death toll. According to its records, between 19 July 2012 and 15 December 2016 there were 22,633 adult male deaths (73%), 2,849 adult female deaths (9.2%), 3,773 child male deaths (12.2%) and 1,775 child female deaths (5.7%). 23,604 or 76% of all fatalities were civilians, while only 7,406 or 24% were military deaths. Causes of death were explosions (910 deaths), shelling (6,384 deaths), field execution (1,549 deaths),Allegations of war crimes
Syrian government and allies
{{Quote box, width=20%, align=quote=The violations and abuses suffered by people across the country, including the siege and bombardment of eastern Aleppo, are not simply tragedies; they also constitute crimes of historic proportions., source=Rebels
A UN envoy warned that rebels may have been committing war crimes due to their indiscriminate rocket warfare targeting civilians in Aleppo, while trying to lift the siege in October and November 2016. The Aleppo rebels used improvised artillery, including "Kurdish-led forces
Amnesty reported that, according to theDestruction of the city and heritage
''...the ongoing devastation inflicted on the country's stunning archaeological sites—bullet holes lodged in walls of its ancient Roman cities, the debris of Byzantine churches, early mosques and crusader fortresses—rob Syria of its best chance for a post-conflict economic boom based on tourism, which, until the conflict started 18 months ago, contributed 12% to the national income.{{cite magazine, title=Syria's Looted Past: How Ancient Artifacts Are Being Traded for Guns, url=http://world.time.com/2012/09/12/syrias-looted-past-how-ancient-artifacts-are-being-traded-for-guns/#ixzz26ujLHJ8C, magazine=Time, access-date=24 September 2015The
Reactions
Media coverage
The coverage of the siege of Aleppo in the Western media emphasised the suffering of civilians and often contained graphic pictures of injured and dying children. As there were almost no international journalists there, the reporting was outsourced to local activists linked to the rebels who held the city. This was significantly different from the news coverage of the sieges ofDomestic reaction
The Syrian President,Aleppo victory celebrations
A series of victory celebrations were held in Aleppo following the government forces' victory, attended by government supporters,{{cite news , last=Nabih , first=Bulos , url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-syria-evacuations-20161221-story.html , title=Assad supporters celebrate victory over Aleppo as last rebels are evacuated from the city , work=Los Angeles Times , date=21 December 2016 , access-date=27 December 2016 including Aleppo's Christian community which has increasingly sided with the government.{{cite web, url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/aleppo-syria-mass-graves-russia-claims-rebels-torture-mutilation-massacre-a7496066.html, title=Russia says it has found mass graves in eastern Aleppo, website=Foreign reactions
* In October and December 2016, the UN held a "Security Council Emergency Briefing on Syria" to discuss the situation in Aleppo. However, no agreement was reached. The United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Samantha Power criticized the Syrian government, Russia and Iran, in a speech at the briefing, stating "to the Assad regime, Russia, and Iran—three Member States behind the conquest of and carnage in Aleppo—you bear responsibility for these atrocities." Comparing the situation in Aleppo to the mass killings inProtests in solidarity with anti-government forces in Aleppo
Rallies and demonstrations intended to show solidarity with Aleppo's besieged civilians, as well as protests against the Syrian government and its Iranian and Russian allies, were held in several cities across the world, organized by numerous groups. In Paris, the Eiffel Tower went dark on 14 December 2016, as a symbol of solidarity, and thousands protested in Paris' Stravinsky Square against Russia's role in the destruction of the city.Timeline
* Syrian government supply lines cut between October 2012 and October 2013, before being re-established from the south.{{cite news, url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/10/2012109224646736885.html, title=Syrian rebels claim control of strategic town, publisher=Al Jazeera, date=4 October 2012, access-date=13 October 2012 * From mid-to-late 2014, the Syrian government captures the eastern and northeastern approaches to the city. * Syrian government cuts the northern rebel supply route from Turkey in February 2016, and the last road into the rebel-held part of Aleppo city in July 2016. * Syrian government siege of rebel-held parts of Aleppo from Summer into Fall 2016,{{cite web, url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/map-syrian-army-attempts-capture-new-sites-southern-aleppo/, title= apSyrian Army attempts to capture new sites in southern Aleppo, first=Leith, last=Fadel, publisher=almasdarnews.com, date=8 September 2016, access-date=28 January 2017, archive-date=28 October 2020, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194947/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/map-syrian-army-attempts-capture-new-sites-southern-aleppo/, url-status=dead two rebel counteroffensives repelled.{{cite news, url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/syria-army-besieges-aleppo-as-us-russia-talks-stumble/3100204.html, title=IS ousted from Turkey border as Syria army besieges Aleppo, publisher=channelnewsasia.com, agency=AFP/ec, date=5 September 2016, url-status=dead, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916190030/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/syria-army-besieges-aleppo-as-us-russia-talks-stumble/3100204.html, archive-date=16 September 2016 * On 12 December 2016, Syrian government forces had gained control of 98% of the formerly rebel-held east, and rebels were reportedly "near defeat". * Syrian government and allies' victory reported on 12 December and declared on 13 December. * City divided between a government-held west and rebel-held east, with two northern districts YPG-held, from July 2012 to November 2016. * Thirty percent of the UNESCO World Heritage SiteSee also
{{Portal, Asia, War {{div col, colwidth=25em *Notes
{{NotelistReferences
{{Reflist, 30emBibliography
* {{cite document , last1=Cafarella , first1=Jennifer , last2=Casagrande , first2=Genevieve , title=Syrian Opposition Guide , publisher=External links
{{Commons category, Battle of Aleppo